I. Biology - study of life

A. what alive
1. Has order - heirarchial organization
a) cell - tissues, organs, organ systems
b) organism - population, ecosystems, biomes, biosphere
2. sensitivity - responding to stimuli
3. growth development and reproduction
4. regulation - coordination of systems
B. Nature of Science
1. deductive reasoning - resting general idea - math and philosophy
2. inductive reasoning - use observations to make and test a model (science) (the scientific method)
3. basic research - science for the sake of science at the university level 4. applied research - science to make money - industry

immutable - do not change

C. Darwin - who influenced him
1. Thomas Malthus - essay on geometric increase in species, but arithmetic increase in food
a) geometric increase: (2, 6, 18, 54)
b) arithmetic increase: (2, 6, 10, 14)
2. Alfred Russel Wallace - joint presentation on natural selection and survival of the fittest

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I. Chemistry

A. Atoms
1. matter - takes up space
2. protons - atomic number
3. atomic mass - protons + neutrons; measured in daltons
B. Isotope - atoms of the same element with the same number of neutrons
1. radioactive - nucleus unstable nucleus breaks and releases energy (radioactive decay of halflife) Carbon 14
2. radioactive material damages or kills living cells
C. Electrons
1. ions - charged; different number of protons to electrons
a) cation - positive charge caused by loss of electron
b) anion - negative due to gain of electron
2. orbitals - where find electrons (cloud around nucleus)
a) s shape - sphericle
b) p shape - dumbell
3. electrons determine behavior of atom
D. Energy
1. octet rule - where atoms will fill outer energy levels
2. valence electrons - electrons in outer energy level
3. exodation - loss of electron
4. reduction - gain of electron

II. Chemical bonds

A. Ionic - transfer of electrons
1. molecule - group of atoms held together by bonds
2. compound - molecule with more than one element (H₂O, NaCl)
B. Covalent bond - sharing electrons
1. Na + Cl (reactants) -> NaCl (product)
2. chemical reactions
a) temerature - increases rate of reactions
b) more reactants increase rate of forward reaction where more products increase rate of reverse reaction
c) catalyst - speeds up reactions (enzymes)
C. Biological Atoms - 11 of 92 elements are found in a measurable proportion in the body
1. carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen (4 most common elements)
a) all form covalent bonds
b) weak enough to break at life's temperature
c) two of these are 90% of the atoms (water)
d) found in gas form soluble in H₂O
D. Water
1. H₂O - polar molecule
a) oxygen - slightly negative
b) hydrogen - slightly positive
2. attraction to other H₂O molecules called cohesion
3. adhesion - attraction to other molecules
a) capilary action - thinner the tube, stronger the attraction
4. hydrophobic - molecule that does not like water
5. hydrophilic - molecule that likes water
E. Water as a solvent
1. hydration shell - water molecules surrounding an ion
F. pH - 1 -> 7 <- 14
1. H⁺ - hydrogen ion - acid
2. OH^- - hydroxyl group (ion) - base

H₂O -> H⁺ + OH^-
G. Buffer
1. blood normal pH of 7.4
2. blood acidosis - pH .2 - .4
3. blood alkalosis - opposite of above
4. buffer - resevoir for H⁺
a) carbonic acid - (H₂CO₃)
b) bicarbonate - (HCO₃)

- they switch off and will release whichever is needed to be a buffer

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I. Chemical Building Blocks

A. Macromolecules
1. organic - contains carbon
2. four categories
a) carbohydrates
b) lipids
c) proteins
d) nucleic acids
3. functional groups
a) hydroxyl (-OH)
b) carbonyl (-C=O)
c) carboxyl (-COOH)
d) amino (-NH₂)
e) sulfhydryl (-SH)
f) phosphate (PO₄)
g) methyl (CH₃)
B. Building macro molecules
1. dehydration synthesis - put together by removing a water
C₆H₁₂O₆ + C₆H₁₂O₆ -> C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + H₂O
2. hydrolysis - to break appart by adding water
3. anabolic reaction - macromolecules are built from smaller subunits (put popcorn on a string)
4. catabolic reaction - taking a large molecule and breaking it into subunits
C. Carbohydrates - energy storing molecule
1. sugars - contain C:H:O in 1:2:1 ratio
a) energy storage due to the high number of C-H bonds
b) monosaccharide - C₆H₁₂O₆
c) glucose - most important monosaccharide
2. Isomers - fructose and galactose are isomers of glucose
- structural isomer - identical chemical groups bonded to different carbon atoms
- stereoisomer - identical chemical groups bonded to the same carbon atoms with different orientation
3. Transport Disaccharides - energy being transported without fear of being used until it reaches its destination (like writing a check instead of cash)
a) special enzymes regulate the breaking of disaccharides
b) maltose - made of two glucose molecules (fruit)
c) sucrose - glucose and fructose (table sugar) (from plants)
d) lactose - glucose and galactose (milk sugar)
4. Polysaccharides
a) starch - long chains of glucose of maltose
• amylose - simplest starch
  
• use hydrolysis to break polysaccharides up
b) glycogen - animal store glucose; longer than starch and more branched
c) cellulose - CH₂OH group is located on alternating carbons to give it strength. It takes a specific enzyme to break that bond. Humans use cellulose as a source of fiber to help clean digestive system.
d) chitin - modified form of cellulose; added a nitrogen to glucose (exoskeleton)
D. Lipids - fats, phospholipids, steroids, terpenes, prostiglandins
1. Fats
a) used to store glucose (energy) for long periods of time - due to high number of C-H bonds
b) C-H bonds are non-polar; not soluble in water
c) structure: 2 subunits
• glycerol - carbon alchohol with a hydroxyl (OH)
  
• fattyacids - long hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl (COOH)
d) saturated fat - fatty acid with all internal carbons bonded to a hydrogen
e) unsaturated fat - having a double bond; a fatty acid that does not have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to carbons
f) polyunsaturated fat - being more than a double bond
• low melting point and are liquid at room temperature
g) allocation of carbos
• glucose for immediate energy
  
• transport disaccharides
  
• convert starch or glycogen for future use
h) as you age, the need for energy drops but carbohydrate intake does not, so the body turns it to fat (why people get fatter when older when eating the same as before)
2. phospholipids - polar heads and non-polar tails; triglyceride with fatty acid chain replaced by a phosphate group (PO₄
3. steroid - cholesterol or carbon rings
4. terpens - very long chained lipids; ex: chlorophyll (plants) and retinal (animals for vision)
5. prostaglandins - involved in inflamitory response and are inhibited by asprin
E. Proteins
1. kinds of proteins
a) enzyme - biological catalyst
b) globular proteins - enzymes or antibodies
c) fibrous proteins - collagen, muscle fibers, ligaments (muscle to bone) and tendons (bone to bone)
d) peptides - intercellular messengers
2. amino acids - building blocks of proteins; central carbon with an amino acid group (NH₂), carboxyl group (-COOH), and a hydrogen atom
a) 20 common amino acids - each has a chemical side group that make it unique - this is an R group (the variable in an amino acid)
b) peptide bond - a vovalent bond between 2 amino acids
c) polypeptide - (many bonds) long chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds (aka proteins)
3. globular proteins - long chained proteins folded into complex 3D shapes
a) primary structure - amino acid squence
b) secondary structure - how the protein bonds itself to itself with hydrogen bonds
• alpha helix
  
• beta sheet - two chains linking to form a pleat
c) tertiary structure - folded in 3D shape upon itself
d) quaternary structure - the subunit structure (number of alpha + beta)
e) denaturing - unfolding of alpha and beta folds (what happens when you cook meat or get a high fever)
F. Nucleic Acids - information storage device
1. structure - long polymers of nuleotides
a) 5 carbon sugar (ribose, deoxyribose)
b) phosphate (PO₄)
c) nitrogenous base
2. phosphodiser bond - bond between nucleotides formed by dehydration synthesis
3. purines - bases in DNA & RNA
a) adenine
b) guanine
4. pyrimidines -
a) cytosine - DNA & RNA
b) thymine - DNA
c) uracil - RNA
5. ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
a) DC sugar
b) base - adenine
c) 3 phosphate groups
6. DNA
a) deoxyribose
b) double stranded
c) hydrogen bonds at bases hold helix together
d) A-T     C-G
e) does not leave nucleus
7. RNA
a) blue print for amino acids
b) leaves nucleus
c) ribose
d) single strand
e) A-U     G-C