According to Chang, the trend of globalization is a driver for the need to "understand the nature of work-related adult education programs crossing international boundaries and has affected those who are responsible for developing international training activities" (p. 174). One of the problems he identified for training was communication problems. The communication problems lead to misunderstood needs for education. He cited Biggs (1996) by suggesting that understanding the cultural roots for observed behaviors while a native teaches other natives is essential to successful training (p. 175). Three techniques he identified for teaching to pursue course objectives are asking questions to provide opportunities for two-way communication, telling stories and sharing real examples, and using classmates as a learning resource by having them share topic-related stories (p. 185). Each method was successful in his case study.

Shim and Paprock agree with Chang on the trend of globalization as a driver for cross-cultural training (p. 13). They say employees fail on work assignments in other countries because they have an inability to adapt to the foreign culture. "Only 30 percent of US managers sent on overseas assignments receive even minimal cross-cultural training prior to departure" (p. 15). The issue involved with getting trained in the first place is convincing corporate policymakers just because someone is successful in the United States does not mean they will be successful elsewhere. They identified four effective methods of cross-cultural training for sojourners from research done by Kealey and Protheroe:

1. to provide the practical information on living conditions in the host country;
2. to study political, economic, and cultural facts about the host country;
3. to obtain cultural awareness information on the host culture;
4. experiential learning activities that combine cognitive and behavioral techniques.

Making expatriates become aware of how certain assumptions can constrain their success in the host culture is important to making choices and acting upon new understandings in the host country (Shim & Paprock, pp. 16-17). Statistical analysis identified learning the language of the host country and using it while there had a strong significance in the success of the expatriates in the study (Shim & Paprock, p. 17). The exact amount and content of the cross-cultural training in the Shim and Paprock study wasn't detailed, but their statistics showed having some sort of cross-cultural training prior to arrival, along with language training were the most significant factors in the success of expatriates.

Lievens, Harris, Keer, and Bisqueret (2003) suggest identifying managers with the highest capacity to master cross-cultural training will result in the most successful expatriate assignments. The issue involved is the consistent process of using intuition and unsystematic methods for selecting expatriates. They classify candidates who have the requisite personality characteristics for successful cross-cultural training have above average verbal, numerical reasoning, and general cognitive ability. Although their research did not support any hard statistical links, other than strong cognitive ability as a training requirement, Lievens et al. predict in the future cross-cultural training will involve more selection procedures utilizing assessment center exercises and behavior description interviews.

Cusher, Robertson, Kirca, and Cakmak identified a trend in Turkey by local trainers to develop training materials for outsiders (p. 614). The focus of the training in their study was to help participants understand "key concepts in cross-cultural communication, help participants understand the relationships between culture, communication and language, as well as the role of such concepts as stereotypes and cultural values in the process of making intercultural decisions" (p. 615). Evaluations of the training program identified prejudice and educational differences as major causes of difficulty in cross-cultural communication. A notable fact was the exclusion of religion as an important contributing factor in intercultural communication conflicts (p. 616). In the conclusions, Cusher et al. identified a little-discussed problem with returning expatriates and the concepts of re-entry:

Many individuals who have received training and/or have spent a considerable amount of time living or working for an extended period of time with people different from themselves experience a significant shift in perception of self and others. Returning to one's home community espousing ideas and practices that may be in conflict with traditional beliefs and values can create unexpected obstacles and stress. (p. 625)

Clegg and Gray found a trend with US and European companies using home-country nationals in nations that were less-developed, preferring to use host-country nationals in only in nations that were classified as developed (p. 599). Companies tend to send home-country nationals "to start up operations" and when special technical expertise is needed. Key expatriate skills identified from Mendenhall and Oddou cited by Clegg and Gray were the ability to manage cultural differences, versatility in problem solving methods, and a superior understanding of the organization and its global entirety (p. 601). They make references to the same cultural management issues identified by Shim and Paprock. The explanation is simple in their eyes: a lack of cross-cultural training since companies often send people overseas because of their technical skills, intending to stay for a short term. As a result, the un-trained expatriates often fail at the single assignment they were designated to complete.

Magnini and Honeycutt reinforce Clegg and Gray in their details of required technical expertise for expatriates. For the hotel firms surveyed in the Magnini and Honeycutt study, Chinese firms indicated "ability to adapt" as their leading selection criterion for expatriate hotel managers. The issue for the hotel companies is how to measure "ability to adapt" before assigning a manager to an expatriate position. As part of the research, they developed the surveys noted in Table 4.1 to predict and measure the potential success of managers entering training programs. The statements of the survey are judged on a Likert scale of strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). Only trainees with high scores on the surveys should be assigned overseas.

Table 4.1
Expatriate candidate goal orientation survey (Magnini & Honeycutt, p. 273)

Conclusion

Overall, trends include the following:

1. the use of screening surveys to find ideal expatriates;
2. the use of local trainers to create training materials;
3. storytelling as a classroom method of instruction;
4. and a push to provide expatriates with some minimal amount of training before departure, preferably including language training.

Common issues discussed include:

1. convincing policymakers cross-cultural training is important for every person, not just long-term assignments;
2. overcoming prejudice and stereotypes;
3. identifying communication problems before they create other problems;
4. and identifying expatriates with the highest likelihood of success in cultural training and adaptation in the host country.

References

Chang, W. (2004). A Cross-Cultural Case Study of a Multinational Training Program in the United States and Taiwan. Adult Education Quarterly, 54(3), 174-192.

Clegg, B. & Gray, S. J. (2002). Australian expatriates in Thailand: some insights for expatriate management policies. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(4), 598-623.

Cushner, K., Robertson, L., Kirca, S., & Cakmak, M. (2003). A cross-cultural material development project to train Turkish development personnel in the Southeastern Anatolia Regional Development Project (GAP). International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 609-626.

Lievens, F., Harris, M. M., Keer, E. V., & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting Cross-Cultural Training Performance: The Validity of Personality, Cognitive Ability, and Dimensions Measured by an Assessment Center and a Behavior Description Interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-489.

Magnini, V. P. & Honeycutt, E. D. (2003). Learning orientation and the hotel expatriate manager experience. Hospitality Management, 22, 267-280.

Shim, I. & Paprock, K. E. (2002). A study focusing on American expatriates' learning in host countries. International Journal of Training and Development, 6(1), 13-24.