Cross Cultural Communication by Lewis (1999) is a good resource for general, albeit stereotyped, representations of communication behaviors and interactions for many international cultures in the areas of communication patterns, listening habits, audience expectations, leadership styles, and the language of management. Lewis suggests training is needed in each area to know the context in which to consider a message, the possible filters created between speaker and listener, expectations of each party, and the resulting message.

The internet provides many educational opportunities, but is not the answer. It should never replace face-to-face instruction (Gorski, 2001).

Gorski mentions multicultural, web-based training evaluation models, such as Bruce Leland's Evaluating Web Sites: A Guide for Writers (1998), Joe Landsberger's Evaluating Website Content (1999), and Elizabeth E. Kirk's Evaluating Information Found on the Internet (1999), rely on Authority, Currency, Bias, Accuracy, and Credibility. Schrock's Teaching Literacy in the Age of the Internet (1999) contains a list of evaluation criteria for teachers including:

• Dates: Does the site include a notation about when information was placed online or updated?
• Efficiency: How quickly does the page load on the screen?
• Links: Does the site contain original resources, or just links to other original resources? Are links appropriate?
• Navigability: is the site organization obvious?
• Quantity of Information: Is the site interactive, and will it be necessary to return to the site periodically for updated information?
• Requirements: Does the site insist on requirements or registration?
• Uniqueness: Are the unique qualities of the Web a strength or a weakness of the site?

The Executive Training Program in Japan (Lievens, Harris, Van Keer, & Bisqueret, 2003, p. 477)

The Executive Training Program (ETP) is a 12 month training program in Japan aimed at training Europeans managers Japanese business-related practices . The program consists of intensive language courses, university seminars, company visits, and in-house training as a mix of experiential and analytical training methods. Learning is typically in small groups (e.g. "language learning occurs in groups of three"). After the 12 month program, participants work in Japanese host companies for 6 months alongside Japanese coworkers and supervisors to demonstrate their success with the training program.

The Interchange Institute Program (Copeland, 2005)

Goals Of Multicultural Training:

• To maximize the cultural sensitivity
• To learn how to avoid misunderstandings based on cultural differences
• To learn how to communicate verbally and non-verbally with colleagues in other cultures

Methods Used In Multicultural Workgroup Training:

• Short lectures
• Perspective-taking exercises
• Role plays
• Simulation game
• Self-reflection and assessments
• Small group discussion
• Group problem-solving and card-sorting activity
• Question and Answer period
• Action Planning (application of training to trainees' own situation)

Sample One-Day Multicultural Workgroup Program:

• Introduction and Establishment of Expectations and Needs
• What We Do (and Don't) Mean by the Word "Culture"
• Classic Models of the Meaning of Culture
• How Others See US Americans and How Will Others See Me?
• Brief Overview of How Cultural Values Affect Workplace Issues, with emphasis on expectations about leadership, negotiation style, conduct of meetings, and business writing
• Cultural Differences in the Workplace: Data and Application from Around the World
• Communication Styles: The Dangers of Not Understanding the Role of Culture
• Tips for Business Travelers to Host Country
• Application of Training: Analysis of trainees' own management approaches in light of their own cultural values, communication styles, and learning styles, and in light of current multicultural situations
• "Ask the Expert" Question and Answer period for covering any unanswered questions
• Wrap-Up and Evaluation

Contrast-American Method (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000)

According to Bhawuk and Brislin (2000), the Contrast-American Method is a culture self-awareness method where the trainees see a demonstration of a behavior completely different to to one in their own culture. In this method, trainees are videotaped during the training session and debriefed after the session by the trainer. The method has three steps: "it helps the trainees to recognize their own cultural values; they then analyze the contrasts with other cultures; they then finally apply the insight to intercultural interaction. An obvious weakness of the method is that it does not necessarily help the trainees to learn anything specific about the host culture(s) in which they will be interacting" (¶ 8). The learning objective is to develop cultural self-awareness. The authors believe changes in behavior as a result of observing the host country's behaviors will result in the most success in the host country.

Cross Cultural Workshops and Seminars (Delany-Barmann & Minner, 1996)

Three approaches to cross-cultural training are described by Delany-Barmann and Minner (1996) in Table 2.1. Each training workshop is designed for between 12 and 40 participants over age 15. The workshops are intended to establish a foundation for further discussion and training, not necessarily a well rounded preparation for sojourners. Other than discussion and debriefing, there is no other type of evaluation mentioned for the workshops.

Self-reference Criterion Method (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000)

Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) also discuss a reference to Lee (1966), the creator of Self-Reference Criterion (SRC). SRC is defined as "the unconscious reference to one's own cultural values in communicating with people who are from other cultures" (¶ 9). The desire to overcome the SRC resulted in the creation of Lee's (1966) cultural analysis system. The four steps in the SRC Method are:

1. Define and evaluate the business problem faced by the sojourner's culture
2. Define and evaluate the business problem faced by the host culture
3. Isolate the SRC influence in the problem and examine how it complicates the interaction
4. Redefine the problem without the SRC influence and find a solution for the optimum business goal situation

Table 2.2 summarizes common features between training programs. Simulation is the most popular method of training. Language training was likely only mentioned in ETP because many other training programs are focused on completing the training in a short time period. Collaborative problem solving and experiential learning approaches were the most common grounded strategies found in the research. All the training has the common objective of trying to get the participants to realize they will have to make an effort to observe, internalize, and adapt to their new host culture.

References

Bhawuk, D., & Brislin, R. (2000, Jan). Cross Cultural Training: A Review [Electronic version]. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 49(1), 162-192. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.epnet.com/

Copeland, A. P. (2005). Cross-Cultural Training. The Interchange Institute. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.interchangeinstitute.org/html/cross_cultural.htm#Workgroups

Delany-Barmann, G., & Minner, S. (1996). Cross-Cultural Workshops and Simulations for Teachers. The Teacher Educator, 32, 37-47.

Gorski, P. C. (2001). Multicultural Education and the Internet: Intersections and Integrations. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Lewis, R. D. (1999). Cross Cultural Communication: A Visual Approach. Warnford, NH: Transcreen Publications.

Lievens, F., Harris, M. M., Van Keer, E., Bisqueret, Claire. (2003, June). Predicting Cross-Cultural Training Performance: The Validity of Personality, Cognitive Ability, and Dimensions Measured by an Assessment Center and a Behavior Description Interview [Electronic version]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-488. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.epnet.com/

Philcox, W. (2001). Cross-Cultural Training. National Culinary Review, 27-32. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.acfchefs.org/trends/crosscultural.html