Instructional strategy considerations

What are the most important considerations when choosing a particular instructional strategy?

1. learning objectives - For example, if my learning objectives focus on learning a procedure, I would not choose Problem-solving instructional strategy. If learning objectives state learners are to learn skill to make something, I'm going to use something like Shank's Learning by Doing theory. As part of this, learning objectives need to be able to be categorized in a learning taxonomy like from Tripartite (Hilgard 1980), Gagne (1985), Bloom (1956), Anderson (1981), Merrill (1983), Reigeluth & Moore (1999), etc.

Is it important for students to drive the speed of the course, are experience necessary for the experience, are teacher-directed methods appropriate?

2. desired/prescribed learning environment - setting, use of simulation, importance of hands on experience, configurations
3. available resources - time, personnel; if there is limited time, consider applying teacher-directed strategies
4. learners/target audience - do learner characteristics really change the instructional strategy? 2c argues no. It might affect the delivery mode, though. Checklists are most appropriate for procedures with one answer. Higher order thinking with multiple correct answers are best to use with assessment rubrics. Novice versus expert - novices might need a more structured learning strategy where they have lots of scaffolding and have it slowly taken away.

Types of tests

Entry test - prerequisites Pretest - adapt instruction based on results Practice tests Final test

• normative referenced
• ISD doesn't do this because it doesn't measure skills; psychometrics
• critereon referenced
• conventional - m/c, t/f; good for assessing verbal outcomes, some concepts and principles
• performance/product checklist - procedural learning; one way to do something, one way of learning
• rubrics - multiple ways of doing something

Comparison of Alternative Instructional Design Models

by: Marlene Fauser, Kirk Henry, and David Kent Norman on February 4, 2006

An Instructional Design model gives structure and meaning to a problem, enabling the would-be designer to negotiate the design task using a process or systematic method. Models help us to visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units. The true value of a model can only be determined within the context of use. A model should be judged by how it mediates the designer's intention, how well it can share a work load, and how effectively it shifts focus away from itself toward the object of the design activity (Ryder, 2006).

The purpose of this paper is to analyze three instructional design models, one from each of the classifications classroom, product, and system. The analysis should compare and contrast the key concepts associated with each model. Additionally this paper will identify and describe arguments against the use of ISD models in general.

Instructional Design models are classified into three types, classroom, product and system (Gustafson & Branch, 2002). Classroom models are of interest to, and are usually designed for, professional teachers from K-12, community colleges, vocational schools, and other related areas. These models take into consideration the environment of teachers. Their users may view them as a guide rather than a methodology. These models focus on the use of existing materials rather than the design of new. The output of these models is small, a unit or module of instruction used within the school year. The models also have less rigorous formative evaluation and revision than product or system models.

Product-Oriented models, prescriptive in nature, are primarily focused on creating instructional products. These instructional products may be self-study, self-paced computer based training, or other materials that can be used by a student with reduced guidance. The methodology of these models may cause them to be confused with system models, but product models are not used to create comprehensive systems as system models are. Product development models demonstrate four assumptions: the instructional product is needed, something needs to be produced rather than using or modifying existing materials, there will be considerable emphasis on tryout and revision, and the product must be usable by learners with only facilitators but not teachers. These models are drawn upon as computer-based instruction has become more often the instructional delivery method of choice (Gustafson & Branch, 2002).

Systems-oriented models are used to develop large amounts of instruction. This can be courses or curricula and may include the development of new materials or the repurposing of existing materials. Systems models align with the ADDIE methodology, emphasizing front-end analysis and design phases. Gustafson and Branch observed emphasis on front-end analysis may result in a proposal for a non-training solution (2002). Systems models, unlike product development models, typically assume a large scope of effort.

Classroom Oriented Model - Gerlach and Ely

The Gerlach and Ely Model is a prescriptive model that is well suited to K-12 and higher education. It is meant for novice instructional designers who have knowledge and expertise in a specific context (Braxton, Bronico, & Looms, 1995). Although drawn as a linear model, many of the steps are intended to occur simultaneously. The Gerlach and Ely Model recognizes most curriculum will be designed around the concepts to be taught in each subject matter and teachers, who are forced to adapt existing materials for use in their courses (Braxton, et al., 1995).

The first step in the Gerlach and Ely process is to simultaneously specify the content and objectives. With this model intended for K-12 teachers, these combined steps recognize that teachers know the content or think of content first, then define the objectives for that content. The objectives do need to be defined, however, for use in the next steps of the model.

The second step is to specify the entry point of learners, which for K-12 teachers may simply mean reviewing existing records. The third step is to perform five activities simultaneously: (1) determine strategy, (2) organize groups, (3) allocate time, (4) allocate space, and (5) select resources. The key is to determine which combinations will best allow the students to meet their objectives. The Gerlach and Ely model emphasizes using existing instructional materials rather than develop new materials.

After these simultaneous decisions are made, the next step is evaluation of performance. The teacher should determine what observable or measurable changes occurred in the students and if the observations can be attributed to the instruction. The model concludes with a feedback loop to determine the effectiveness of the instructions so changes can be made as necessary.

Product Oriented Model - Bates

In 1995, Tony Bates presented a model for developing open and distance learning. Bates realized digital communications were going to be used more frequently for distance education. Early in his research, he acknowledged the fact that there are inherent limitations of distance education. Bates created a framework for selecting learning technologies which is still relevant today. The organizing framework that Bates proposed is called ACTIONS, which stands for access, cost, teaching and learning implications, interaction, organizational issues, novelty and speed.

Bates's model has what he calls a front-end system design. A front-end system design has four phases: course outline development, selection of media, development/production of materials, and course delivery. Within each phase, Bates has properly identified the team roles and the actions or issues to be addressed. Bates readily admits he borrows heavily from the ADDIE model from which he derives many of his ideas. One of the reasons Bates may have felt compelled to create an additional model to ADDIE is because ADDIE has been widely and often criticized for being too systematic. ADDIE is often said to be too linear, too constraining, and even too time-consuming to implement with regards to e-learning. While Bates may have been making an attempt to simplify ADDIE, he cautions course design may take as much as two years.

One of his main concerns, prompting the development of ACTIONS, was the way face to face course material was adapted for web or other distance learning approaches. Bates feels the traditional remote instructor concept is nothing more than face-to-face instruction without direct interaction. Bates also states these specific scenarios often fail to take advantage of the unique benefits that are available through the specific technology being used.

Additionally, in his 1995 book, Technology: Open Learning and Distance Education, Bates details cost analysis when designing distance or e-learning solutions. If his design and evaluation methods are followed, one would easily be able to determine the effect each dollar spent on this e-learning solution has had on a given student. This can be particularly useful when dealing with fiscal management issues.

The Bates Model provides the user with a plethora of tools and ideas, each of which will be useful for designing e-learning environments. The model is broken down into four distinct groups. Each group is replete with projects and assignments.

System Oriented Model - Gentry IPDM

Castelle Gentry explains his model of Instructional Development in the course of a textbook. Gentry named his model the Instructional Project Development and Management (IPDM) Model. The IPDM model was born as a result of five conclusions Gentry made with regards to instructional design. The first conclusion admonishes introductory instructional design textbooks for not adequately linking relationships between instructional design processes and their supporting processes (Gentry, 1994, p. ix). The second of Gentry's conclusions says introductory instructional design textbooks should teach both what and how to "do", in other words "practical means for accomplishing specific tasks" (Gentry, 1994, p. ix). The third through fifth conclusions set a basis for Gentry to develop a generic Instructional Design model as a survey of instructional design processes, supporting processes, and techniques.

The result IPDM Model is has eight development components, defined by Gentry (1994) in a non-linear diagram.

1. Needs analysis - establish the validity of needs and goals for existing or proposed instruction
2. Adoption - establish acceptance of an innovation by those affected and obtain a commitment of resources.
3. Instructional Design - determine and specify objectives, strategies, techniques, and media for meeting instructional goals.
4. Production - construct elements of a project, as specified in a design and revision data.
5. Prototyping - assemble, pilot test, respecify, validate, and finalize an instructional unit.
6. Product Installation – establish the necessary conditions for effective operation of a new instructional product or process.
7. Ongoing Operation – maintain the continuing application of an instructional product and/or procedure.
8. Ongoing Instructional Unit Evaluation – collect and analyze data about an ongoing instructional unit to make decisions about future revision.

The development components have five supporting components, defined by Gentry (1994, p. 5):

1. Project Management – control, coordinate, and allocate resources.
2. Information Handling – select, collect, organize, store, retrieve, distribute, and assess information required by an ID project.
3. Resource Acquisition and Allocation – determine resource needs, formalize budgets, and manage resources.
4. ID Project Personnel – determine needs for staffing, training, assessment, motivation, counseling, censuring, and dismissing ID project members.
5. Facilities – organize and renovate spaces for design, implementation, and testing of elements of instruction.

The development and supporting components are linked by information sharing between the two clusters for the duration of the project. Gentry designed his model to show instructional design is not a linear process.

Model Comparison and Contrast

When doing the comparison between Bates, Gentry and Gerlach/Ely's models, it was noted that all three models allowed for some variation in implementation; it would not be incorrect to modify the order of the steps depending on the settings of the instructional situation. This is especially true for the Gerlach/Ely model. The three models we have chosen to review all were published between 1994 and 1995.

The Bates and Gentry models both rely heavily on front end work. This means that the model assumes that step one will involve an extensive needs analysis. The information learned from the analysis will be crucial in the next phases of the design. In particular, the Gentry IPDM model is best for large scale projects, as demonstrated by the communication core of the model. Both Bates and Gentry also provide a framework for helping the designers determine the overall cost of the solution. This may include the cost of the technology needed for implementation. Bates and Gentry are also very good at providing personnel assignments for each phase of the design. This allows the designer to determine, up front, the type of personnel that will be needed throughout the design and implementation.

The main strength of the Gerlach/Ely model is practicing classroom teachers can identify with the process it suggests. The Gerlach/Ely model allows for a novice instructional designer whereas Gentry and Bates need some design expertise to perform front-end analysis. As a result, classroom teachers might be more likely to apply Gerlach/Ely. The Gerlach/Ely model differs from the other two by emphasizing existing content as the basis for new instruction. Basing new instruction on old content by forgoing front-end analysis may unintentionally reinforce traditional learning teaching patterns rather than promoting a re-examination of best practices in classrooms.

Instructional Designers cannot be effective if they are familiar with only one model.  The designer must be able to fit the design to the situation and familiarity with various models will make that designer more successful.  Analyzing various models demonstrates that although the models had differences, combined steps in various ways, or used different vocabulary, they shared a fundamental principle of attempting to deliver effective learning or educational tools.

Arguments Against Instructional Design

In an article published in Training Magazine in April 2000, Jack Gordon and Ron Zemke lay out arguments against the use of ISD models. The article was the catalyst for a plethora of rebuttal articles, white papers, and seminars on why ISD is not dead and is still useful and relevant to the field (Clark, 2004). The arguments in the original article were:

• ISD is too slow and clumsy to meet today's training challenges
• There's no "there" there
• Used as directed, it produces bad solutions
• It clings to the wrong world view

Rebuttals concentrated on the question: Is it ISD that's flawed, or the manner in which it is applied that is the problem (Zemke & Rossett, 2002)? To address the argument of ISD being slow and clumsy, Sivasailam "Thiagi" Thiagarajan conducts workshops in "Rapid Instructional Design" which includes strategies and design elements to move more quickly through the ADDIE phases and to use partial processes where appropriate (Thiagi, 1999).

Argument two discusses the use of ISD as a "technology" of instruction. Project management for Information Technology (IT) projects is seen as a science. Yet IT project management is an art as is Instructional Design. IT project management has addressed similar flaws in waterfall or linear project management processes. Additional project life cycles have been introduced in this discipline. These models, selected based on project and environmental factors, include: incremental or prototype based methodology, Barry Boehm's Spiral Model, and the Rush to Base Evolutionary Model (BU, 2005). Options such as these applied to ISD would allow for the flexibility and rapidness desired for delivery of an instructional solution.

The third argument is that following ISD models will produce bad training. Clark (2004) discusses how the "A" of ADDIE was never meant to stand for Performance Analysis and that Instructional Design should only begin once it is determined training is the solution to the problem.

Charge 4 assumes ISD jobs have a set of best practice procedures that must be taught to students who are not master performers. Saul Carliner suggests we should remember ISD is a value system that must be applied appropriately and all ISD needs is re-tooling for all the new ways of learning we see since ISD was first proposed more than 50 years ago.

References

Boston University Corporate Education Center. (2005). Courseware MDP405: Managing Information Technology v4.0.

Braxton, S., Bronico, K., & Looms, T. (1995). Instructional design methodologies and techniques. Retrieved January 30, 2006, from University of Michigan, Educational Software Design and Authoring Web site: http://www.umich.edu/~ed626/Gerlach_Ely/ge_main.htm

Carliner, S. (2003). An instructional design framework for the twenty-first century. Unpublished manuscript, Concordia University. Retrieved January 30, 2006, from http://education.concordia.ca/~scarliner/idmodel.pdf

Clark, D. (2004, June 7). The Attack on ISD – 2000. Retrieved January 30, 2006, from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/attack.html

Clark, D. (2004, June 13). A hard look at ISD - 2002. Retrieved January 30, 2006, from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/look.html

Gentry, C.G. (1994). Introduction to instructional development: Process and technique. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Gordon, J. & Zemke, R. (2000, April). The attack on ISD: Have we got Instructional Design all wrong?. Training Magazine.

Gustafson, K.L., & Branch, R.M. (1997). Survey of instructional development models: Fourth edition. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearing house of Information & Technology

Ryder, M. (2006). Instructional Design models. Retrieved January 29, 2006, from University of Colorado at Denver, School of Education Web site: http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html#comparative

Thiagarajan, S. (1999). Rapid Instructional Design. Retrieved January 29, 2006, from http://www.thiagi.com/article-rid.html

Zemke, R. & Rossett, A. (2002, February 1). A hard look at ISD. Training Magazine

Analysis Techniques Portfolio

by: Marlene Fauser, Kirk Henry, and David Kent Norman on February 18, 2006

Task Analysis involves the systematic process of identifying specific tasks to be trained and a detailed analysis of each of those tasks (Ehrlich, 2000). To be able to design learning supported instruction, designers must understand the tasks the learners will be performing (Jonassen, Tessmer, & Hannum, 1999).

The purpose of this paper is to apply three analysis techniques from separate categories of methods as described by Jonassen, et al. to one instructional goal. This paper describes the key concepts, application, and experiences with a technique each from the Job, Procedural, and Skill Analysis Method, Instructional and Guided Learning Analysis Method, and Subject Mater/Content Analysis Method. A sample of each analysis technique is provided in the Appendices.

The Job, Procedural, and Skill Analysis Method emerged during WWII when most training being developed was technical training which emphasized procedural skill development. These methods describe in a procedural manner the way jobs are performed. Analyzing steps has become the most common conception of task analysis and there are many methods and approaches published. Alternatively, Instructional and Guided Learning Analysis Method describe tasks how they are best learned. This may or may not be consistent with the ways the job is performed. Subject Matter/Content Analysis Methods consider that designers elicit instructional information from SMEs. This information will usually come to the designer in an outline form, chunked by the subject matter expert. This organizational method can be effective, but is not always the best way to represent the instructional content. Subject Matter/Content Analysis Methods offer alternate methods for representing content structure.

Job, Procedural, and Skill Analysis Method – Job Task Analysis

The task analysis approach emerged from the field of systems analysis when systems analysis was applied to the world of work (Jonassen, et al., 1999). The purpose of creating task descriptions is to enhance the performance of the overall system or to enhance job or task performance.

In order to conduct a job analysis, you must describe and analyze each task. The description should include the stimulus situation and the proper response. One would typically start at a general level and then get more specific (Miller, 1962 as cited in Jonassen, et al., 1999). Jonassen, et al. would argue that there are several advantages to creating task descriptions:

• It is very job oriented
• It provides data to support training, personnel selection, and job design
• It describes tasks in sufficient detail to prevent misunderstanding
• It identifies the competencies that underlie job tasks

We must also consider the disadvantages of task descriptions as well. First, the process is generally limited to specific descriptive aspects of tasks. Secondly, the skill level of the task analyst must be high. Individuals with this level of skill may be difficult to find. Additionally, it has been found that the task description procedure as a whole does not help select specific tasks for training.

All of this information was considered when creating the analysis for the task of distance collaboration. The outline in Appendix A contains detailed information that follows the methods suggested by Jonassen, et al. (1999). There is additional information in Appendix B that further develops each solution and what it should be used for.

When going through this assignment, it was difficult for me to understand the level to which the analysis should be reported. I was torn between describing each button push and mouse click. For our chosen area, there are several categories where different applications could be used. I felt that it would be difficult to describe each button push for each individual software package as they did in the book for pre-flight checks.

I did notice, however, that putting this information on paper, provided me, an experienced technologist, with clear concise information which can and will be used to help others decide on platforms as well as conduct smooth, effortless collaboration sessions.

Instructional and Guided Learning Analysis Method - Learning Contingency Analysis

Learning contingency analysis differs from task analysis primarily in focusing on tasks in a learning environment rather than job performance (Jonassen, et al., 1999, p. 99). By focusing on identifying the behavioral components of tasks, the designer can discover the interdependencies among the tasks (Jonassen, et al., p. 99). Contingency analysis involves first sequencing the instructional content, followed by determining the most effective conditions for the instruction. For example, teaching algebra to a six-year-old during recess would be an extreme example of poor contingency analysis. First the child must have an understanding of basic arithmetic and a learning environment free of distractions.

The sequencing of instruction should reflect one behavior having dependence on another (Jonassen, et al., p. 100). To sort learning contingencies, Jonnassen cites Gropper's (1974) four behavioral components tasks can have:

• Superordinate/subordinate – a hierarchical relationship to show behavior X is a part of behavior Y.
• Coordinate relationship – behaviors at the same level in a hierarchical relationship, not necessarily performed at the same time or in the same order.
• Shared elements – behaviors that share some amount of the same concepts.
• No relationship – behaviors with no relationship to each other.

Appendix A references eight steps for conducting a learning contingency analysis, which includes Gropper's behavior components as part of steps three and four. The hierarchical learning analysis is similar to Dick, Carey, and Carey's (1999) chapter on subordinate skills analysis. Dick, et al, describes a method of drawing relationships between learning components in a pictorial form, versus a bulleted, tabular form in contingency analysis. The fifth step of contingency analysis skips a few chapters in the Dick and Carey model, but is analogous to developing instructional strategy.

In all, the learning contingency analysis is best for environments where learning is important, rather than performance. It is a time consuming analysis meant to draw a roadmap for the most effective sequence of instruction. The result instruction framework is rigid and may not be appropriate for learning tasks which can not be directly observed. A large instructional unit could make a confusing set of sequential dependencies between tasks in step 3 as compared to the pictorial method recommended by Dick, et al., so a highly skilled analyst is to perform contingency analyses.

Subject Mater/Content Analysis Method – Master Design Chart

The Master Design Chart approach to task analysis is used when the educational ends are the development of the behavioral capabilities of the students (Jonassen, et al., 1999, p. 207). This method has its basis in two foundations. The first foundational principle states that instructional outcomes can be stated as behavioral objectives. The second states the use of instructional taxonomies to describe the outcomes. In using this method, the instructional designer classifies content according to behaviors but is not bound to any taxonomy.

To conduct a Master Design Chart analysis the designer constructs the behavior axis using a taxonomy of instructional outcomes. The designer can use more specific behaviors as appropriate. Next the specific items of content are identified and listed as the vertical axis.

Each cell in the chart is now analyzed and the relative emphasis required in the course or curriculum is noted in the cell. This is done on a continuum with 0 representing no emphasis and a number such as 3 or 5 representing the most emphasis. Although the resulting chart does not represent relationships among the instructional outcomes, it is recommended a relationship step be taken.

A Master Design Chart is constructed for a curriculum or a whole course rather than for an individual lesson. Although it gives an overview of the entire course, no information is included regarding any instructional strategy. A strength of this method is that the risk of omitting important content is reduced. Weaknesses of this method are that it is dependant on the skills of the analyst, lacks basis in needs assessment and is time consuming to construct.

For our course, the matrix was created using document analysis techniques. The result is included as Appendix E. The content included information about being a "Distance Manager" and included content on what a leader should learn and know to successfully manage a geographically diverse team. Concentration from this SME was on higher level techniques as opposed to the detailed tasks analyzed in the Job Task Analysis approach.

While creating this matrix it was difficult to determine how the task list should be written. My habit is to include the action verb associated with the learning event. The matrix provides that association to the taxonomy, a challenge for this designer.

I selected to analyze this method since much of my work comes to me from Subject Matter Experts. I hoped I could learn to use a Subject Mater/Content Analysis Method in my job performance. I found it contrary to my method of thinking, which does helps me see things from a new perspective. However I also found it tedious and am not anxious to complete the Master Design Chart.

Overall Reflection

After reviewing the previous techniques, it has become clear that while some techniques can be used for the broadest of applications, others have been designed specifically for certain tasks. The more finely tuned the instructional designer's skill set is, the more they will be able to select the most specific tool for the task.

The task analysis method could be considered the broadest within the subset that we evaluated. It could be used in nearly every scenario. However, the resolution that it lacks may cause the end product to be deficient. Learning about and when to use the most refined tools available is the difference between being a novice or an expert.

References

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2005). The systematic design of instruction: 6th edition. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Ehrlich, D. (2000). Glossary of terms. Retrieved February 18, 2006, from the Northeastern Illinois University, Instructional Design II Web site: http://www.neiu.edu/~dbehrlic/hrd408/glossary.htm

Fazio, A., & Rieff, K. (2006, Jan). The distance manager. Presented at a meeting of the IT department of Walt Disney Parks & Resorts.

Jonassen, D. H., Tessmer, M., & Hannum, W. H. (1999). Task analysis methods for instructional design. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Writing up reliability results

Guiding Principle: No measure is ever reliable. Scores determined by a measure may be reliable depending on who completes the measure and the conditions under which the measure is completed (when and where).

Structure of the Reliability write-up

Procedure One	Procedure Two
1. Comment on the reliability of the scores by examining the reliability coefficient. Everyone has her/his own standards, but here are what mine tend to be: < .65 Poor; .65 ≤ Modest ≤ 80; > .80 Very good	1. Comment on reliability coefficient
	2. Comment on the corrected item-total correlations
	Note which items have a negative corrected item total correlation. Note whether any negative corrected item total correlation are attributable to miscoding or items with response options are scaled opposite of the majority of items. Note which items have a zero corrected item total correlation. Note which items with a zero corrected item total correlation do so because of no variance (every person responded the same way to the item)
2. Do nothing more	3. Comment on how high your reliability coefficient would increase if you were to drop out all negative item-total correlations one at a time until you had no more negative corrected item-total correlations.
	4. Do nothing more

Sample paragraph

Responses for the various features of the agency website were judged to be moderately reliable for the customer service representatives who participated in the survey, with a reliability coefficient of 0.778. A review of the corrected item-total correlations suggests that the questions for the website as a critical tool and a unique website in the marketplace do not correlate with the corrected total very well. Their elimination is warranted on the basis that reducing the scale to only relevant items would make for a better, more parsimonious scale. It turns out that removing the item may further be motivated by anticipated increase in the reliability coefficient reported in the output (0.884).

If HTML newsletters, online payments, Internet as a tool, and customer communication with the agency were removed, the reliability of the scale would increase to 0.963.

To examine the impact of removing both items, each item was removed one at a time. This approach is necessary because the impact of removing one item changes the relationship of the other item with the changing total.

Developing a research question

Three major types of questions are causal/comparative, relationship, and impact. Use a literature review as a funnel to narrow a broad area of research into a manageable contribution, which leads to "The purpose of this study is..." Classic or landmark studies would be considered good content for the introductory, broad part of the literature review. Use incremental blocks of studies as a transition to more focused topics in your area of research. The final question should be something you are genuinely interested in finding the answer to so you have the motivation to complete the report as time progresses.

The question should have a question mark at the end. The question should ask if there is a cause/effect, what impacts what, or if there a relationship (what two or more things are related). Should have a construct or construct level at the start that is narrowed down to something very specific. Could "self concept" really mean "body image"? Does "achievement" mean achievement in math, reading, overall, or something else? Include operational definitions for parts of the question to define "achievement" if you are looking for relationship between achievement and yearly income. Perhaps achievement has several six factors to consider observing in the study.

Research problem statement template

Template:

This study will investigate the effects of (treatment) on (population). The investigation will be conducted (describe the setting). The present study, within the context of (the setting), will be concerned with the following research questions:

1. Does the procedure of (treatment) have (performance change) difference on (the experimental population) as compared to (the control population)?
2. Does the method of (treatment) - (restate method of treatment) - affect (population)?

Hypothesis 1: (Relate back to research question number 1). Hypothesis 2: (Relate back to research question number 2).

---

Example:

This study will investigate the effects of Digital Propensity on the preferences of insurance agency employees when information is presented with either text or graphics as the primary presentation format. The investigation will be conducted in a "real work" setting and will use a computer-based task. The present study, within the context of a work environment, will be concerned with the following research questions:

1. Does the presentation of graphics with text support more closely match the preferences of "Digital Natives" than the same content presented as text with graphical support?
2. Does the presentation of text with graphical support more closely match the preferences of "Digital Immigrants" than the same content presented as graphics with text support?

Sample Chapter organization of study

Chapter 1 of this study introduced the problem statement and described the specific problem addressed in the study as well as design components.

Chapter 2 presents a review of literature and relevant research associated with the problem addressed in this study.

Chapter 3 presents the methodology and procedures used for data collection and analysis.

Chapter 4 contains an analysis of the data and presentation of the results.

Chapter 5 offers a summary and discussion of the researcher's findings, implications for practice, and recommendations for future research.

Validity issues in research

Internal validity - how valid were the procedures that I followed in terms of the research method to obtain the information I need External validity - how generalizable is the information learned from a study

Internal validity

• History effect - did something recently happen to one of the sample groups that would make it differentiate from the other groups. For example, if you ask small children about their fears of ghosts, some of the children may report less fear if they are surveyed near Halloween.
• Maturation - when the study doesn't control for natural growth; in other words, the natural maturation of the group is the actual cause of improvement in the study instead of the treatment
• Testing - what are the effects of a pretest on a posttest; familiarity with the instrument impacts the results on the second test
• Instrumentation - is an issue when instrumentation changes during a study; for example, calibration of individual opinions in a observation study could have differences in results just because a one rater might think an event is a 5 on a 1-10 scale, and another rater might think the same event is a 7. The result grades on essay papers depending on the mood of the instructor. If the publisher comes out with a new version of a test and the previous test isn't available. Then you need to see how closely the two tests are correlated.
• Statistical regression - also known as regression to the mean; for example, getting a perfect score on the SAT only leaves the possibility of going down in score. The more extreme the results, the more likely each is to move towards the mean because of the error that put them in the extreme in the first place like guessing on questions that make the difference between a perfect score and a lower score.
• Differential selection - people that you pick are not representative of the population in the first place;
• Experimental mortality - differentially loose respondents; for example, you might not even know who you lost or picked in the first place. Loosing the extremes in both cases of a paired study could be the actual cause of change rather than the treatment
• Selection maturation interaction - as part of the selection, the sample actually has unknown differences that make the differences in the results instead of the treatment. For example, if teaching children basketball, while the children may start with similar free-throw ability, one child may improve faster than another simply because of superior hand-eye coordination, rather than the basketball instruction.

External validity

• Interactive or reactive effects of testing - example: giving a pretest to the people in the population sample may impact their performance during observation, so the pretest has an interaction effect that limits the generalizability of the results to the general population because the whole population did not take the pretest.
• Interaction and selection biases - the treatment only works for the selection, so can't be generalized; may be a result of the environment the selected group was performing in
• Reactive effects of experimental arrangements
• Multiple treatment interference - when you have more than one treatment, how do you know which one made the difference? Something like sequencing presentation of treatments may make a difference.

Bibliography

Campbell, D. T. & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago, R. McNally.

Predicting the performance of interpreting instruction based on Digital Propensity Index score in text and graphic formats

Practitioners have proposed that Digital Natives prefer graphics while Digital Immigrants prefer text. While Instructional Design has been extensively studied and researched, the impact of the graphical emphasis in instructional designs as it relates to digital propensity has not been widely explored. Specifically, this study examined the performance of students when presented with text-only and graphic-only instructional formats. The purpose of this study was to test the relationship between Digital Propensity Index scores of individuals and their performance when interpreting online instruction. A sample of students from the population of a large metropolitan university received the Digital Propensity Index questionnaire, which is a measure of an individual's time spent interacting with digital media. Each student was randomly assigned varying formats of a computer-based instructional unit via a public survey. The instructional unit consisted of the DPI questionnaire and six tasks related to the Central Florida commuter rail system.

Participants were asked to answer the DPI questionnaire on a website by clicking on a link in an emailed invitation. Following the DPI questionnaire, participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Group One saw three instructional tasks shown in text and shuffled in random order. Each task was displayed on its own webpage. By submitting an answer to the task, the group progressed through the website to the next task. Group Two saw graphic tasks first, again, shuffled in random order. After the first three tasks, the groups swapped instructional formats to view the opposing group's initial questions. Participants were timed on how many seconds they spent reviewing each task. Each task had an assessment question to evaluate the learning outcomes of the instructional unit. Finally, the DPI score of the participant was matched with the time spent viewing each presentation format.

The findings indicate that DPI score had a statistically significant prediction of time spent navigating each type of instruction. Though the link between DPI score and time spent navigating instruction was statistically significant, the actual measurable time difference between navigating text and graphic formats was only a fraction of a second for each increment in DPI score. Limitations and potential future research related to the study are discussed as well.

Attachment	Size
Norman_David_K_200808_PhD_protected.pdf	3.3 MB

Instructional Treatment Plan

As a class assignment, I developed an instructional treatment plan for the following objective: Given a virtual working environment, avoid communication problems between virtual team members when working on a project.

We chose Nelson's Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) model because team skills are a higher order thinking activity. Nelson says CPS is not appropriate for memorized or procedural tasks and a CRT item would be "waste precious instructional time" and that "CPS is most appropriate when there is not a single answer to a question or best way of doing something" (Reigeluth, 1999, p. 247).

CPS was also chosen because the collaborative element in a virtual environment forces the students to experience the very topic they're studying and writing about. Each of the process activities in CPS is a small assessment of the enabling objectives since the group can't move on to complete the assignment until they have normed, agreed on the problem, defined roles, etc. I thought the true assessment of the enabling objectives would be performed as part of the debriefing, reflection, and discussion at the end of the unit.

Many texts have the condition, behavior, and criteria/degree elements of objectives (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2005, pp. 123-139; Kubiszyn & Borich, 2003, p. 82; Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek 2006, p. 129; Stolovitch & Keeps, 1999, p. 356) and that Hirumi added audience (2005, ¶ 6). We tried to follow the samples in Dick, et al. (2005, p. 139), for the condition/degree of assessing intellectual skills by specifying things like "at least five peer-reviewed journals" in the sample assessment rubric. The other assessment rubric items were modeled from Dr. Hirumi's performance criteria for this assignment and peer evaluation for the end of the course.

I believe I can ask the question, "could I observe the learner doing this?" (Kubiszyn et al., 2003, p. 80; Dick et al., 1999, p. 127) to each of the objectives we listed in the treatment plan as part of the measurable behavior component of the objectives. Granted, the observation would not have an associated percentage completion or accuracy, but that goes back to the complexity of multiple solution theory in CPS. Dick et al, p. 139 has several samples without a CRT item as the assessment criterion for intellectual skill objectives.

Ways to improve the treatment plan are to include some of the degree elements from the assessment rubric earlier in the objectives, add more description and content to the instructional events, create an activity for forming and norming teams and an activity for role selection, and investigate taking some fuzziness out of the objectives.

References

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2005). The systematic design of instruction (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Allyn and Bacon.

Hirumi, A. (2005, August 1). Unit 4: Performance objectives supplement. Retrieved September 9, 2005, from http://webct.ucf.edu/eme6613c/Unit04/u04info.html

Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. (2003). Educational testing and Measurement: Classroom application and practice (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley / Jossey-Bass Education.

Reigeluth, C. (1999). Instructional-design theories and models: 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2006). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Stolovitch, H. D., & Keeps, E. J. (eds.). (1999). Handbook of human performance technology: Improving individual and organizational performance worldwide (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass / Pfeiffer

My writing process

When I start writing a paper for a school assignment, I review each of the requirements of the assignment, making headings for each in a word processor. Then I try to link each part of the assignment with one or more of the objectives for the instructional unit. For example, in preparation for this assignment, I started with three lines at the top of a blank document in the following manner:

What is my writing process like? What is your first step in completing a paper? What is each subsequent step?

Of the four objectives listed for this instructional unit, "recognize and articulate your own writing process", was the only objective to match the components of the assignment. I try to make the link between assignment requirements and objectives to double-check my interpretation of the assignment.

What I do next, in writing a paper, depends on the type of assignment. In the case of this assignment, I am reflecting rather than summarizing results of research, so I started writing immediately after I linked the assignment requirements with an objective. After each paragraph, I read back through what I said in the previous two paragraphs and make revisions.

Had this assignment been to write about the results of research, I would have started by outlining the sections of the paper. Each section would contain a notation of the applicable requirements in the assignment. If any ideas come to mind for things to write about, I add them as short, incomplete notes in the section it belongs. I create a title page with a temporary title. Next, I start a literature review. The literature review almost always prompts me to change the title of my paper more than once. I only start writing the paper for an assignment when I have a solid topic statement or abstract for guiding the rest of the report.

Whether it be subject of the paper is reflection, research, or a topic where I am a subject matter expert, I revise the report in two paragraph chunks as I go. I think it helps confirm the flow between paragraphs. When I finish a complete section, I skim through the section before moving to the next to check flow. At the end of the paper, I walk away from the computer; final revisions are for a fresh sitting. In the ideal situation, I print the paper to edit with a pencil.

In my first critical revision, I check for using the same word to start sentences and grammar. I only read one sentence at a time to see if it makes sense. When I finish the pencil revisions, I make the corrections in the word processor and make my final read-through on the computer screen for the flow of the paper. Sometimes I move large chunks of paragraphs to other parts of the paper. At this point, I coax my wife into using a red pen on a print-out of the paper. For the most part, she revises for content, leaving comments on what I should leave out, expand on, or add. In ideal situations, I give the paper a third read before turning it in. Unfortunately, procrastination often prevents me from having the energy to put into a third reading.

Technical editing defined

Technical editing is an iterative team effort involving one or more editors, authors, subject matter experts (SMEs), and evaluators. Each team component has specialized roles. The editor provides direction, scope, vision, purpose. Editors verify adherence to applicable style guides as well as review drafts for usability, logic, arrangement, spelling, punctuation, grammar, and design. Writers translate information from subject matter experts to written form. Writers are responsible for arbitrating content presentation between the editors’ global scope and the SME’s specific content. Changes to text during the review process are the responsibility of the writers. SMEs provide expert input on required content. SMEs also serve as a specialist member of the evaluation team to review text for currency, accuracy, and adequacy. Evaluators serve as a third party to improve the effectiveness of delivery. Evaluation is performed in a one-to-one or small group format to include clarity, impact, feasibility, and generalizations. Field trial is performed with evaluators to judge the text’s effectiveness under the targeted conditions.

The editing process is a kind of life cycle. I developed a waterfall style diagram of the production process, consisting of 6 major parts, as shown in Figure 1: define project parameters, logical design, physical design, development, implementation, and maintenance.

Figure 1: Technical Editing Waterfall

Between each step, a review is performed by the editor, SME, and/or evaluators, to be implemented by the writers. Since costs to significantly revise a document increase as the document reaches completion, the review and changes are essential before moving on to the next step.

Alignment between learning objectives and item types in assessments

Method	Type of Test Item	Sample Behaviors
Conventional	True/False	identify, recognize, select, choose
	Matching	identify, recognize, select, discriminate, locate
	Fill-in-the-Blank	construct, develop, discuss, define, generate, identify, solve, locate, state
	Multiple Choice	choose, discriminate, identify, recognize, select, solve, locate
	Short Answer	define, discriminate, evaluate, identify, locate, state, name, select, judge, solve
	Essay	construct, discuss, develop, evaluate, generate, judge, solve
Performance	Performance/Product Checklists	construct, solve, develop, generate, locate, perform, operate
	Assessment Rubric	choose, construct, generate, operate, perform

Alignment according to Gagne's taxonomy:

Method	Type of Test Item	Learning Domain
Conventional	True/False	Verbal Information Concepts
	Matching
	Fill-in-the-Blank
	Multiple Choice
Performance	Performance/Product Checklists	Procedures/Rules
	Assessment Rubric	Problem Solving/Cognitive Strategies

Analysis Phase

The difficult part of this project has not been meeting with the service learning partner or getting the information we need, it has been the deciding on what content is good or bad, correct or incorrect for charting in the goal analysis. At the start, everyone except James wanted to jump into reorganizing the Hospice orientation as we thought it should be, however the assignment called for drawing how the system is currently implemented.

As I sketched out the process of HR orientation with Michelle, we created skill boxes and verbs for what the client wanted to accomplish. Note, what the client wants to accomplish is different from what they are currently presenting, so the charting came to a halt as our group members debated four different interpretations of the assignment. Michelle interpreted the assignment to mean it was possible we were supposed to be sketching how Hospice actually does orientation, now. Since my verbs matched more of an ideal implementation of Hospice, it would have involved a total re-think of the goal analysis. Three of us turned out to be correct anyway, but only in parts. In retrospect, it might have been helpful to have just asked our questions earlier instead of debating our interpretations of the assignment requirements.

One of the most useful things I used during the assignments was the Gagne's list of verbs. I had trouble with adding verbs to the goal analysis because I imagined the verbs had to be some physical action I could observe. I hadn't considered the verb could just as easily been someone speaking a one-word answer to a question. As I started connecting verbal arrows to other boxes in the Visio file I created, I realized I have only a vague understanding of how to create the flow of connections for verbal information. I will need to re-read that section of Dick, Carey, and Carey to properly contribute my input to the team version of the analysis.

In a few partial group discussions, we played with alternative ideas methods for presenting the orientation content in the current program. For example, I think all of my group members believe most, if not all of the paperwork signed during orientation can be done individually, without consuming HR's staff time. By downloading the forms online, receiving them by mail, or coming in to review the current packet on their own shouldn't require as significant amount of time as HR is putting in now. If HR allowed employees alternative methods or opportunities to file personnel paperwork, they could use more orientation time to orient the new employees to the culture of the client's organization.

After reading draft assignments from other students in class, I had a new appreciation for following the flow of charts. Creating the proper breaks in flow for pagination, drawing arrows in the right direction, and picking the best verbs makes a big difference in what information a chart conveys. Even though 2c said the goal statement in the draft I presented in class was acceptable, I believe after re-reading Unit 1 Supplement, it can be improved to better clarify the learner, the real-life context, and the available tools for accomplishing goals. Right now, the goal I stated feels very heavy in what learners will be able to do. Michelle and James far exceeded my expectations of time commitments to this group project, and I have met with them in person and by phone on several occasions outside regularly scheduled face-to-face class meetings. I will be meeting again with James on Monday to clarify terms in the team learner and context analysis.

The attached assignment includes a goal and subskills analysis, and learner and context analysis of a non-profit.

Attachment	Size
HOTC Learner&Context Analysis 20051002 blacked out.pdf	64.56 KB
HOTC goal&ssa 20051002 blacked out.pdf	56.35 KB
HOTC analysis phase feedback.pdf	45.45 KB

Bloom's taxonomy

Measurable Action Verbs for Generating Performance Objectives based on Bloom’s Taxonomy for Learned Outcomes.

Knowledge Level	Comprehension Level	Application Level
Arrange Acquire Define Distinguish Duplicate Identify Label List Match Memorize Name Order Recognize Recall Repeat Reproduce	Classify Demonstrate Describe Discuss Distinguish Explain Express Identify Interpret Locate Recognize Rephrase Report Represent Restate Review Select Sort Tell Translate Transform	Apply Classify Demonstrate Dramatize Develop Employ Generalize Illustrate Interpret Operate Organize Prepare Practice Reconstruct Relate Schedule Sketch Solve Transfer Use
Analysis Level	Synthesis Level	Evaluation Level
Analyze Appraise Calculate Categorize Classify Compare Contrast Criticize Deduce Detect Diagram Differentiate Discriminate Distinguish Examine Experiment Inventory Question Test	Arrange Assemble Collect Compose Construct Create Derive Design Document Formulate Manage Modify Organize Plan Prepare Produce Relate Set up Synthesize Tell Transmit Write	Agree Appraise Argue Assess Assume Attack Challenge Choose Compare Contrast Decide Defend Estimate Evaluate Judge Predict Rate Score Select Support Validate Value

Chunking instructional units

Alternative Methods for Chunking Units into Lessons based on 5E Instructional Strategy

Instructional Unit 1
Instructional Event (Engage)	Lesson 1
Instructional Event (Explore)
Instructional Event (Explain)
Instructional Event (Elaborate)
Instructional Event (Evaluate)
Instructional Unit 2
Instructional Event (Engage)	Lesson 2.1
Instructional Event (Explore)	Lesson 2.2
Instructional Event (Explain)	Lesson 2.3
Instructional Event (Elaborate)	Lesson 2.4
Instructional Event (Evaluate)	Lesson 2.5
Instructional Unit 3
Instructional Event (Engage)	Lesson 3.1
Instructional Event (Explore)	Lesson 3.2
Instructional Event (Explain)
Instructional Event (Elaborate)
Instructional Event (Evaluate)	Lesson 3.3
Instructional Unit 4
Instructional Event (Engage)	Lesson 4.1
Instructional Event (Explore)
Instructional Event (Explain)	Lesson 4.2		Lesson 4.3
Instructional Event (Elaborate)
Instructional Event (Evaluate)	Lesson 4.4
Instructional Unit 5
Instructional Event (Engage)	Lesson 5.1		Lesson 5.2
Instructional Event (Explore)
Instructional Event (Explain)
Instructional Event (Elaborate)
Instructional Event (Evaluate)
Instructional Unit 6
Instructional Event (Engage)	Lesson 6.1
Instructional Event (Explore)
Instructional Event (Explain)	Lesson 6.2	Lesson 6.2		Lesson 6.4
Instructional Event (Elaborate)
Instructional Event (Evaluate)
Instructional Unit 7
Instructional Event (Engage)	Unit Overview
Instructional Event (Explore)	Lesson 7.1
Instructional Event (Explain)	Lesson 7.2
Instructional Event (Elaborate)	Lesson 7.3
Instructional Event (Evaluate)	Unit Summary
Instructional Unit 8
Instructional Event (Engage)	Unit Overview
Instructional Event (Explore)	Lesson 8.1	Lesson 8.2		Lesson 8.3
Instructional Event (Explain)
Instructional Event (Elaborate)
Instructional Event (Evaluate)	Unit Summary

Defining performance objectives

Dick, Carey, and Carey (2005) outline a set of requirements for performance objectives in an instructional unit, including audience, behavior, condition, and degree. The audience is the target population to complete the assigned objective. Behavior includes an action verb to describe what the learners are expected to know and/or be able to do. Cues, stimuli, tools, scope, and complexity are part of the condition in a performance objective. Finally, the acceptable performance is defined by the degree. A complete objective would have all four components, for example, "provided with a list of insects, first graders will write the list of insects in alphabetical order with 90% accuracy."

Gagne verbs

Domain	Measurable Verbs/Behaviors
Verbal Information Names, labels, facts or a collection of propositions	Arrange Acquire Define Distinguish Duplicate Identify	Label List Match Memorize Name Order	Recognize Recall Repeat Reproduce
Concepts A set of objects, symbols or events grouped on basis of shared characteristics that can be referenced by a name or symbol.	Classify Describe Discuss Distinguish Explain Express Report	Represent Identify Interpret Locate Recognize Rephrase Restate	Review Select Sort Tell Translate Transform
Procedures & Rules Relational rules or principals and procedural rules or procedures.	Apply Classify Demonstrate Dramatize Develop Employ Generalize Illustrate	Interpret Inventory Operate Organize Prepare Reconstruct Relate Practice	Set up Schedule Sketch Solve Transfer Use
Problem Solving Combine learned principles, procedures, verbal information and cognitive strategies in a unique way within a domain to solve original problems	Analyze Appraise Assemble Calculate Contrast Criticize Compose Construct Create	Deduce Detect Derive Diagram Design Estimate Examine Experiment Formulate	Hypothesize Plan Produce Question Synthesize Test Validate
Cognitive Strategy Internally organized skills whose function is to regulate and monitor the utilization of concepts and rules	Agree Appraise Argue Assess Assume Attack Challenge	Choose Compare Contrast Decide Defend Evaluate Judge	Modify Predict Rate Select Support Synthesize Value

Grounded instructional strategies

Designing Alternative e-Learning Environments

Grounded Instructional Strategies

Grounded instructional strategies are rooted in established theories and research in human learning, and form the basis for designing alternative e-learning environments. Table 1 outlines the primary instructional events prescribed by various instructional strategies. Each strategy is grouped according to general approaches. Proceeding pages further details the events associated with each strategy.

Table 1. Primary events associated with grounded instructional strategies

Learner-Centered Approaches
Adaptive Instructional Design (Schwartz, Lin, Brophy & Bransford, 1992) 1.   Look Ahead & Reflect Back 2.   Present Initial Challenge 3.   Generate Ideas 4.   Present Multiple Perspectives 5.   Research and Revise 6.   Test Your Mettle 7.   Go Public 8.   Progressive Deepening 9.   General Reflection and Decisions 10. Assessment	Collaborative Problem-Solving (Nelson, 1992) 1.  Build Readiness 2.  Form and Norm Groups 3. Determine Preliminary Problem 4.  Define and Assign Roles 5.  Engage in Problem-Solving 6. Finalize Solution 7.  Synthesize and Reflect 8.  Assess Products and Processes 9. Provide Closure	Eight Events of Student-Centered Learning (Hirumi, 2002, 1998, 1996) 1. Set Learning Challenge 2. Negotiate Goals and Objectives 3. Negotiate Learning Strategy 4. Construct Knowledge 5. Negotiate Performance Criteria 6. Assess Learning 7. Provide Feedback (Steps 1-6) 8. Communicate Results
Inquiry Training (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992) 1.  Confrontation with the Problem 2.  Data Verification 3.  Data Experimentation 4.  Organizing, Formulating and Explanation 5.  Analysis of inquiry process	WebQuest (Dodge, 1998) 1.  Introduction 2.  Task 3.  Process 4.  Resources 5. Evaluation 6.  Conclusion	Constructivist Learning (Jonassen, 1992) 1.  Select Problem 2.  Provide Related Cases 3.  Provide Information 4.  Provide Cognitive Tools 5.  Provide Conversation Tools 6.  Provide Social Support
BSCS 5E Model (Bybee, 2002) 1.  Engage 2.  Explore 3.  Explain 4.  Elaborate 5.  Evaluate	Problem-Based Learning (Barrows, 1985) 1.   Start New Class 2.   Start a New Problem 3.   Problem Follow-Up 4.   Performance Presentation(s) 5.  After Conclusion of Problem	Inductive Thinking (Taba, 1967) 1.  Concept Formation 2.  Interpretation of Data 3.  Application of Principles
Jurisprudential Inquiry (Oliver & Shaver, 1971) 1.  Orientation to the Case 2.  Identifying the Issues 3.  Taking Positions 4.  Exploring the Stance(s) 5.  Refining and Qualifying the Positions 6.  Testing Factual Assumptions Behind Qualified Positions	Case-Based Reasoning (Aamodt & Plaza, 1994) 1. Present New Case/Problem 2. Retrieve Similar Cases 3. Reuse Information 4. Revise Proposed Solution 5. Retain Useful Experiences
Experiential Approaches
Experiential Learning (Pfeiffer & Jones, 1975) 1.  Experience 2.  Publish 3.  Process 4.  Internalize 5.  Generalize 6.  Apply	Simulation Model (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992) 1.  Orientation 2.  Participant Training 3.  Simulation Operations 4.  Participant Debriefing 5.  Appraise and redesign the simulation	Learning by Doing (Schank, Berman & Macpherson, 1999) 1.   Define Goals 2.   Set Mission 3.   Present Cover Story 4.   Establish Roles 5.   Operate Scenarios 6.   Provide Resources 7.   Provide Feedback
Teacher-Directed Approaches
Nine Events of Instruction (Gagne, 1974, 1977) 1.  Gain Attention 2.  Inform Learner of Objective(s) 3.  Recall Prior Knowledge 4.  Present Stimulus Materials 5.  Provide Learning Guidance 6.  Elicit Performance 7.  Provide Feedback 8.  Assess Performance 9.  Enhance Retention and Transfer	Direct Instruction (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992) 1.   Orientation 2.   Presentation 3.   Structured Practice 4.   Guided Practice 5.   Independent Practice	Elements of Lesson Design (Hunter, 1990) 1.  Anticipatory Set 2.  Objective and Purpose 3.  Input 4.  Modeling 5. Check for Understanding 6.  Guided Practice 7. Independent Practice
Alternative Approaches
4Mat System (McCarthy, 1987) 1.  Create an experience 2.  Reflect/Analyze experience 3.  Integrate reflective analysis 4.  Develop concepts/skills 5. Practice defined “givens” 6.  Practice adding something 7. Analyze application 8.  Apply to new experience	SQR (Maier, 1996) 1.  Summarize 2.  Question 3.  Response	SQ3R (Robinson, 1961) 1.  Survey 2.  Question 3. Read 4. Recite 5. Review

Learner-Centered Approaches to Teaching and Learning

Adaptive Instructional Design (Schwartz, Lin, Brophy & Bransford, 1992)	The primary goal of this theory is to teach a deep understanding of disciplines, while simultaneously fostering the skills of problem-solving, collaboration and communication, through the use of problem-based learning, followed by more open-ended project based learning. 1.     Look Ahead and Reflect Back Provides an understanding of the goals, context and challenges Provides an opportunity to try it right now (pretest) Consists of motivational series of images, narrative, and questions Helps students represent a specific problem as an example of a larger set of issues 2.     Present Initial Challenge 2.1       Helps students develop a shared, initial mental model of what’s to be learned 2.2       Challenge selection: Motivating, interesting, invites student-generated ideas 3.     Generate Ideas     Helps students make their own thinking explicit     Helps students see what other students are thinking     Encourages sharing of ideas     Helps teacher assess current state of student knowledge     Provides students with a baseline to more easily see how much they learn 4.     Present Multiple Perspectives     Provide a way to introduce students to vocabulary and perspectives of experts     Allow students to compare their ideas to experts’ ideas     Provide guidance on what students need to learn about     Provide expertise, guidance, models of social practice in the domain     Provide realistic standards of performance     Indicate that multiple perspectives exist in the domain Research and Revise (to help students explore a challenge)     Consult resources     Collaborate with other students     Listen to “just-in-time” lectures     Complete skill-building lessons     Look at legacies left by other students     Conduct simulations and hands-on experiments Test Your Mettle (formative assessment)     Multiple choice tests, checklists, essays, experiments, projects     Feedback suggests which resources to consult to reach target 7.     Go Public     Present best solutions (oral, multimedia, print) and leave legacy of tips and ideas for future students     Makes thinking visible     Helps students learn to assess others and themselves     Helps set standards for achievement     Helps students learn from each other     Motivates students to do well
Collaborative Problem-Solving (Nelson, 1992)	The goals are to develop content knowledge in complex domains, problem-solving and critical thinking skills, and collaborative skills. It should only be used when those types of learning are paramount and when the students and instructor are receptive to this approach to learning, with its shift in roles and power relationships. 1.     Build Readiness 1.1       Overview of collaborative problem solving process 1.2       Develop an authentic problem or project scenario to anchor instructional and learning activities 1.3       Provide instruction and practice in group process skills 2.     Form and Norm Groups 2.1       Form small heterogeneous work groups 2.2       Encourage groups to establish operational guidelines 3.     Determine Preliminary Problem 3.1       Negotiate a common understanding of the problem 3.2       Identify learning issues and goals 3.3       Brainstorm preliminary solutions or project plans 3.4       Select and develop initial design plan 3.5       Identify sources of needed resources 3.6       Gather preliminary information to validate the design plan 4.     Define and Assign Roles 4.1       Identify the principal roles needed to complete the design plan 4.2       Negotiate the assignment of roles 5.     Engage in Problem-Solving 5.1       Refine and evolve the design plan 5.2       Identify and assign tasks 5.3       Acquire needed information, resources, and expertise 5.4       Collaborate with instructor to acquire additional resources and skills needed 5.5       Disseminate acquired information, resources, and expertise to the other group members 5.6       Engage in solution- or project-development work 5.7       Report regularly on individual contributions and group activities 5.8       Participate in intergroup collaborations and evaluations 5.9       Conduct formative evaluations of the solution or project 6.     Finalize Solution 6.1       Draft the final version of solution or project 6.2       Conduct final evaluation or usability test of the solution or project 6.3       Revise and complete the final version of the solution or project 7.     Synthesize and Reflect 7.1       Identify learning gains 7.2       Debrief experiences and feelings about the process 7.3       Reflect on group and individual learning processes 8.     Assess Products and Processes 8.1       Evaluate the products and artifact created 8.2       Evaluate the processes used 9.     Provide Closure
Eight Events for Student Centered Learning (Hirumi, 2002, 1998, 1996)	Based on constructivist theories of human learning, Hirumi presents seven instructional events that occur during a course to help students construct their own meaning based on their own interests and prior knowledge structures, and to promote independent, life-long learning: 1.     Set Learning Challenge (Authentic Problem) for class 2.     Negotiate Learning Goals and Objectives with learners 3.     Negotiate Learning Strategy with learners 4.     Learners Construct Knowledge 5.     Negotiate Performance Criteria with learners 6.     Assess Learning (Self, Peer & Expert Assessment) 7.     Provide Feedback (Throughout Steps 1-6) 8.     Communicate Results
Inquiry Training Model (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992)	This model is designed to promote strategies of inquiry and the values and attitudes that are essential to an inquiring mind including: process skills (e.g., observing, collecting and organizing data), active learning, verbal expression, tolerance of ambiguity, and logical thinking. 1.       Confrontation with the Problem 1.1       Explain inquiry procedures 1.2       Present discrepant event 2.       Data Gathering - Verification 2.1       Verify nature of objects and conditions 2.2       Verify the occurrence of the problem situation 3.       Data Gathering - Experimentation 3.1       Isolate relevant variables 3.2       Hypothesize (and test) casual relationships 4.       Organizing, Formulating and Explanation - Formulate rules or explanations 5.       Analysis of Inquiry Process - Analyze inquiry strategy and develop more effective ones.
WebQuest (Dodge, 1998)	WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented strategy in which most or all of the information used by learners is drawn from the Web. 1.     The Introduction orients students and captures their interest The Task describes the activity’s end product The Process explains strategies students should use to complete the task The Resources are the Web sites students use to complete the task The Evaluation measures the results of the activity The Conclusion sums up the activity and encourages students to reflect on its process and results
Constructivist Learning (Jonassen, 1992)	The primary goal of this theory is to foster problem-solving and conceptual development. It is intended for ill-defined or ill-structured domains. 1.     Select Problem 1.1       Problem should be interesting, relevant and engaging, to foster learner ownership 1.2       Problem should be ill-defined or ill-structured 1.3       Problem should be authentic (what practitioners do) 1.4       Problem design should address its context, representation, and manipulation space 2.     Provide Related Cases or worked examples to enable case-based reasoning and enhance cognitive flexibility. 3.     Provide Information 3.1       Provide learner-selectable information just-in-time 3.2       Available information should be relevant and easily accessible 4.     Provide Cognitive Tools that scaffold required skills, including problem-representation, knowledge-modeling, performance-support, and information-gathering tools 5.     Provide Conversation and Collaboration Tools to support discourse communities, knowledge-building communities, and/or communities of learners. 6.     Provide Social/Contextual Support for the learning environment Additional Instructional Activities to Support Learning: Model the performance and the covert cognitive processes Coach learners by providing motivational prompts, monitoring and regulating the learner’s performance, provoking reflection, and/or perturbing learners’ models. Scaffold the learner by adjusting task difficulty, restructuring the task, and/or providing alternative assessments
BSCS 5E Model (Bybee, 2002)	The natural inquiry of children and problem-solving of adults follow a pattern of initial engagement, exploration of alternatives, formation of explanations, use of the explanations, and evaluation of the explanations based on efficacy and responses from others.  Activities encourage conceptual change and a progressive re-forming of ideas. 1.     Engage activities provide the opportunity for teachers to identify students’ current concepts and misconceptions. Although provided by a teacher or structured by curriculum materials, these activities introduce major ideas in problem situations. How do students’ explain this situation? 2.     Explore activities provide a common set of experiences for students and opportunities for them to “test” their ideas with their own experiences and those of peers and the teacher.  How do students’ exploration and explanation of experiences compare with others? 3.     Explain activities provide opportunities for students to use their previous experiences to recognize misconceptions and to begin making conceptual sense of the activities through construction of new ideas and understandings. Allows introduction of formal language, terms and content information that makes students’ previous experiences easier to describe and explain. 4.     Elaborate activities apply or extend the student’s developing concepts in new activities and relate their previous experiences to the current activities. How does the new explanation work in a different situation? 5.     Evaluate activities serve as a summative assessment of what students know and can do. How do students understand and apply concepts and abilities?
Problem-Based Learning (Barrows, 1985)	Disenchanted with medical students’ ability to apply information learned from lectures, Barrow’s developed this model to enhance transfer. 1.     Start New Class 1.1       Introductions 1.2       Climate Setting (including teacher/tutor role) 2.     Start New Problem 2.1       Set problem 2.2       Bring problem home 2.3       Describe the product/performance required 2.4       Assign tasks 2.5       Reason through the problem (i.e., ideas/hypotheses, facts, learning issues and action plan). 2.6       Commitment as to probable outcome 2.7       Learning issues shaping/assignment 2.8       Resource identification 2.9       Schedule follow-up 3.     Problem Follow-Up 3.1       Resources used and their critique 3.2       Reassess the problem (i.e., ideas/hypotheses, facts, learning issues and action plan). 4.     Performance Presentation(s) 5.     After Conclusion of Problem 5.1       Knowledge abstraction and summary 5.2       Self-evaluation
Inductive-Thinking Model (Taba, 1967)	Based on information-processing theories of human learning, the inductive-thinking model was developed to enhance students’ acquisition of concepts, information processing skills as well as their convergent use of information to solve problems. 1.     Concept Formation 1.1       Enumeration and listing 1.2       Grouping 1.3       Labeling, Categorizing 2.     Interpretation of Data 2.1       Identify critical relationships 2.2       Explore relationships 2.3       Make inferences 3.     Application of Principles 3.1       Predicting consequences, explaining unfamiliar phenomena, hypothesizing 3.2       Explaining and/or supporting the predictions and hypotheses 3.3       Verifying predictions
Jurisprudential Inquiry Approach (Oliver & Shaver, 1971)	Based on Socratic modes of discussion, the purpose of this model is to help students resolve complex, controversial issues within the context of a productive social order: 1.     Orientation to the Case 2.     Identifying the Issues 3.     Taking Positions 4.     Exploring the Stance(s), patterns of argumentation 5.     Refining and Qualifying the positions 6.     Testing Factual Assumptions behind qualified positions
Case-Based Reasoning (Aamodt & Plaza, 1994)	Case-based reasoning is a problem solving paradigm that utilizes the specific knowledge of previously experienced, concrete problem situations (cases). A new problem is solved by finding a similar past case, and reusing it in the new problem situation. Present: new case or problem Retrieve: Given a target problem, retrieve cases from memory that are relevant to solving it. A case consists of a problem, its solution, and, typically, annotations about how the solution was derived. For example, suppose Fred wants to prepare blueberry pancakes. Being a novice cook, the most relevant experience he can recall is one in which he successfully made plain pancakes. The procedure he followed for making the plain pancakes, together with justifications for decisions made along the way, constitutes Fred's retrieved case. Reuse: Map the solution from the previous case to the target problem. This may involve adapting the solution as needed to fit the new situation. In the pancake example, Fred must adapt his retrieved solution to include the addition of blueberries. Revise: Having mapped the previous solution to the target situation, test the new solution in the real world (or a simulation) and, if necessary, revise. Suppose Fred adapted his pancake solution by adding blueberries to the batter. After mixing, he discovers that the batter has turned blue -- an undesired effect. This suggests the following revision: delay the addition of blueberries until after the batter has been ladled into the pan. Retain: After the solution has been successfully adapted to the target problem, store the resulting experience as a new case in memory. Fred, accordingly, records his newfound procedure for making blueberry pancakes, thereby enriching his set of stored experiences, and better preparing him for future pancake-making demands.

Experiential Approaches to Teaching and Learning

Experiential Learning Model (Pfeiffer & Jones, 1975)	Based on the belief that people learn best by doing, the experiential learning model can start with didactic (passive) forms of instruction but soon progresses to experiential (active) forms of learning. Experience – Immerse learner in “authentic” experience (e.g., real or simulated job task). Publish – Talking or writing about experience. Sharing observations, thoughts, and feelings. Process – Debrief: Interpret published information, defining patterns, discrepancies and overall dynamics, making sense of the information generated by group. Internalize – Private process, learner reflects on lessons learned, means of managing conflicting data and requirements for future learning. Generalize – Develop hypotheses, form generalizations and reach conclusions from information and knowledge gained from lesson. Apply – Use information and knowledge gained from lesson to make decisions and solve problems.
Simulation Model (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992)	Based on the application of cybernetic principles to education, the purpose of this model is to help students develop skills and knowledge by examining the consequences of their actions. 1.     Orientation     Present broad topic of simulation and major concepts     Explain simulation and gaming 1.3       Give overview of the simulation 2.     Participant Training 2.1       Set-up scenario (rules, roles, procedures, scoring, types of decisions, goals) 2.2       Assign roles 2.3       Hold abbreviated practice session 3.     Simulation Operations 3.1       Conduct game activity and game administration 3.2       Feedback and evaluation (of performance and effects of decisions) 3.3       Clarify misconceptions 3.4       Continue simulation 4.     Participant Debriefing 4.1       Summarize events and perceptions 4.2       Summarize difficulties and insights 4.3       Analyze process 4.4       Compare simulation activity to the real world     Appraise and redesign the simulation
Learning by Doing (Schank, Berman & Macpherson, 1999)	The primary goal is to foster skill development and the learning of factual information in the context of how it will be used. Assumes that learning occurs best in context of a goal that is relevant, meaningful, and interesting to students, and when content knowledge is learned in context of relevant tasks closely related to how students will use it outside of the learning environment. 1.     Define Goals 1.1       Process knowledge goals 1.2       Content knowledge goals 2.     Set Mission 2.1       Must be motivational 2.2       Must be somewhat realistic 3.     Present Cover Story 3.1       Must be motivating and create the need for the mission 3.2       Must allow enough opportunities to practice the skills and seek the knowledge 4.     Establish Roles (who the students will play) 4.1       Must be one who uses the necessary skills and knowledge 4.2       Must be motivating 5.     Operate Scenarios 5.1       Must be closely related to both the mission and the goals 5.2       Must have decision points with consequences that become evident 5.3       The consequences must indicate progress toward completing the mission 5.4       A negative consequence must be understand as an expectation failure 5.5       Must be plenty of operations for the student to do (to spent most of their time practicing skills) 5.6       Should not require more than what the goals call for 6.     Provide Resources 6.1       Must provide the information the students need to succeed in their mission 6.2       Information must be well organized and readily accessible 6.3       Information is often best provided in the form of stories 7.     Provide Feedback 7.1       Must be situated, so it is indexed properly as an expectation failure 7.2       Must be just-in-time, so the student will use it 7.3       Can be given in three ways (a) consequences of actions, (b) coaches, (c) domain experts’ stories about similar experiences.

 

Teacher-Directed Approaches to Teaching and Learning

Nine Events of Instruction (Gagne, 1974, 1977; Gagne & Medsker, 1996)	Based on information processing theories and models of human learning, Gagne posits that every unit of instruction should contain the following nine events to facilitate student learning: 1.     Gain Attention 2.     Inform Learners of Objective(s) 3.     Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge 4.     Present Stimulus Materials 5.     Provide Learning Guidance 6.     Elicit Performance 7.     Provide Feedback about Performance 8.     Assess Performance 9.     Enhance Retention and Transfer
Direct Instruction Model (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992)	Based on behaviorist theories of human learning, this model is designed to facilitate learning through stimulus-response conditioning and is said to generate and sustain motivation through pacing and reinforcement. 1.     Orientation 1.1       Establish lesson content 1.2       Review previous learning 1.3       Establish lesson objectives 1.4       Establish lesson procedures 2.     Presentation 2.1       Explain/demonstrate new concept or skill 2.2       Provide visual representation of task 2.3       Check for understanding 3.     Structured Practice 3.1       Lead group through practice example in lock step 3.2       Students respond to questions 3.3       Provide corrective feedback for errors and reinforce correct practice 4.     Guided Practice 4.1       Students practice semi-independently 4.2       Circulate, monitor student practice 4.3       Provide feedback through praise, prompt, and leave 5.     Independent Practice 5.1       Students practice independently at home or in class 5.2       Provide delayed feedback
Elements of Lesson Design (Hunter, 1990)	Widely known model for preparing lesson plans taught to pre-service teachers. Often used to evaluate lesson plans prepared by practicing educators. Anticipatory Set – How will students’ attention be focused? Objective and Purpose – What will students learn and why? Input – What new information will be discussed? Modeling – How can teacher illustrate new skill or content? Check for Understanding – How can teacher determine if students are learning? Guided Practice – What opportunities are given to practice new materials? Independent Practice – How can assignments be used for retention and transfer?

Alternative Approaches to Teaching and Learning

4Mat System Model (McCarthy, 1987)	Based on research and literature on learning styles, this eight-step cycle of instruction is meant to capitalize on students’ learning styles and brain dominance processing strengths. Rather than focus on one learning style, this method encourages students to examine and experience all learning styles. 1.     Create an experience 2.     Reflect/Analyze Experience 3.     Integrate reflective analysis into concepts 4.     Develop concepts/skills 5.     Practice defined “givens” 6.     Practice adding something of oneself 7.     Analyze application for relevance, usefulness 8.     Apply to new more complex experience
SQR Model (Maier, 1996)	This strategy is designed to encourage students’ to take responsibility for their learning and to give students a way to generate their own ideas. In general, this strategy is geared toward enhancing student learning from reading, but may be applied in other context. 1.     Summarize 1.1       Read materials 1.2       Write a summary of the materials in journal 2.     Question 2.1       Write question on the materials in journal 2.2       Discuss summaries and questions in small group 2.3       Select “best” question to share with whole class based on ability to provoke engaging discussions 2.4       Discuss “best” questions with whole class utilizing questioning techniques 3.     Response - Write a response to the small group or whole group class discussion (summary of main points)
SQ3R Study Strategy (Robinson, 1961)	This strategy is designed to help students develop their study skills, particularly in relation to reading assignments. 1.     Survey - Readers preview materials to develop general outline for organizing information. 2.     Question - Reader raises questions with expectation of finding answers in materials 3.     Read - Reader attempts to answer questions by reading 4.     Recite - Reader answers questions out loud or in writing 5.     Review - Reader rereads portions of materials to verify answers given during previous step

 

References

Aamodt, A. & Plaza, E. (1994). Case-Based Reasoning: Foundational Issues, Methodological Variations, and Systems Approaches. Artificial Intelligence Communications, 7(1), 39-59. Retrieved March 15, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.lai-cbr.org/theindex.html.

Barrows, H. S. (1985). How to design a problem based curriculum for the preclinical years. New York: Springer Publishing Co.

Bybee, R. W. (2002). Scientific inquiry, student learning, and the science curriculum. In R. W. Bybee (Ed.). Learning Science and the Science of Learning (pp. 25-36). Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

Dodge, B. (1998). The WebQuest Page. Retrieved  April 3, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/webquest/webquest.html

Gagne, R.M. (1977). The Conditions of Learning (3rd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Gagne, R.M. (1974). Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Gagne, R.M., Medsker, K.L. (1996). The conditions of learning: Training applications. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Hirumi, A. (2002). Student-centered, technology-rich, learning environments (SCenTRLE): Operationalizing constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. Journal for Technology and Teacher Education, 10(4), 497-537.

Hirumi, A. (1998, March). The Systematic Design of Student-Centered, Technology-Rich Learning Environments. Invited guest presentation given at the first Education Graduate Students and Academic Staff Regional Meeting, Guadalajara, Mexico.

Hirumi, A. (1996, February). Student-Centered, Technology-Rich Learning environments: A cognitive-constructivist approach. Concurrent session held at the Association for Educational Communication and Technology Conference, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Hunter, M. (1990). Lesson Design Helps Achieve the Goals of Science Instruction. Educational Leadership. 48(4), 79-81.

Jonassen, D. (1992). Designing constructivist learning environments. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.). Instructional Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory (pp. 215-239). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Showers, B. (1992). Models of Teaching (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

McCarthy, B. (1987). The 4MAT System: Teaching to Learning Styles with Right/Left Mode Techniques. Barrington, Ill.: Excel, Inc.

Nelson, L. (1992). Collaborative Problem-Solving. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.). Instructional Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory (pp. 241-267). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Oliver, D., & Shaver, J. (1971). Cases and Controversy: A Guide to Teaching the Public Issues Series. Middletown, CT: American Education Publishers.

Pfeiffer, J.W., & Jones, J.E. (1975) Introduction to the structured experiences section. In J.E. Jones & J.W. Pfeiffer (Eds.). The 1975 annual handbook for group facilitators. La Jolla, CA: University Associates.

Shank, R. C., Berman, T. R., & Macpherson, K. A. (1992). Learning by doing. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed). Instructional Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory (pp. 161-179). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Schwartz, Lin, Brophy, S., & Bransford, J. D. (1992). Toward the development of flexibly adaptive instructional designs. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed). Instructional Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory (pp. 183-213). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Taba, H. (1967). Teacher's Handbook for Elementary School Social Studies. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc.

Online Examples

Adaptive Instructional Design (Schwartz, Lin, Brophy & Bransford, 1992):
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/h/x/hxk208/INSYS525/K_base4.htm

BSCS 5E Model (Bybee, 2002):
http://cte.jhu.edu/techacademy/fellows/ullrich/webquest/ScienceLesson.html

Case-based reasoning (Aamodt & Plaza, 1994):
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case-based_reasoning

Collaborative Problem-Solving (Nelson, 1992):
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/m/x/mxm939/Prob3.html

Constructivist Learning (Jonassen, 1992):
http://tiger.coe.missouri.edu/~jonassen/courses/CLE/index.html

Elements of Lesson Design (Hunter, 1990):
http://www.huntington.edu/education/lessonplanning/Hunter.html

Inductive Thinking (Taba, 1967):
http://imet.csus.edu/fundamentals/inductive/

Inquiry training (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992):
http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/policy/incel/section_4.html

Jurisprudential Inquiry (Oliver & Shaver, 1971):
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/health/cia/olympic/learn_e/own_e.php

Learning by doing (Schank et al, 1999):
http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-121-pg.html

Nine Events of Instruction (Gagne, 1974, 1977):
http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html

Problem-Based Learning (Barrows, 1985):
http://www.usc.edu/hsc/dental/ccmb/usc-csp/titlproclanelle.htm

Simulation model (Joyce, Weil, & Showers, 1992):
http://imet.csus.edu/imet6/morte/classes/281/Simulations.htm

SQR (Maier, 1996):
http://www.readingonline.org/electronic/nasa/sqr.htm

SQ3R (Robinson, 1961):
http://www.ncrel.org/litweb/adolescent/strategies/sq3r.php

WebQuest (Dodge, 1998):
http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/staffdev/buildingblocks/p-index.htm

4Mat System (McCarthy, 1987):
http://www.geocities.com/jeniskanen/4mat2.htm

Instructional Treatment Plan

The instructional treatment plan builds on the analysis phase of the instructional design process. Some of the elements of the subskills analysis could be plugged right into the assessment alignment table. The organization I've been working with has an uncommon element of attitudinal and emotional importance, therefore the objectives of this plan include attitudinal elements otherwise not seen in a "proper" instructional treatment plan. Version 2.1 is a draft and the name of the organization has been removed since I didn't ask them about posting this to the internet.

One of the major stumbling blocks in completing this assignment was choosing a grounded instructional strategy. The assignment had a template, however the default Gagné instructional strategy seemed to be better suited for classroom, face-to-face instruction. Part of the effort in this project has been to present a large part of the orientation material in a web-based form, and WebQuests, paired with job aids, seemed like the closest grounded instructional strategy to our goal.

In the process of researching WebQuests, I developed a list of helpful resources such as the WebQuest template. I even signed up for a QuestGarden account, a PHP-based site for generating WebQuests. My professor, Dr. Hirumi, studied under faculty at SDSU. A guide on the building blocks of a WebQuest was also helpful in guiding the instructional strategy details for the treatment plan in my assignment.

During this assignment, I realized I'm rusty on rules for creating surveys. I used to know some good tips on trying to dumb-proof surveys, but I need a refresher. I think the Ph.D. program will have a survey course later in my plan of study. During the implementation of assessment tools later in this project, I may need to refer to my old marketing research textbook for some of those rules on survey creation. All I remembered to do was to not make the feelings about HR a double-barreled question.

After receiving feedback from Dr. Hirumi about version 2.2 of the instructional treatment plan, it was easier to see just how much the WebQuest instructional strategy was being modified to fit the objectives of the instructional unit. Tracy gave an example of a WebQuest she had used before. The task was to research George Washington. The process was to visit a website, read about George, answer some questions, and write an essay. The resources were the initial links provided to the learner, and the evaluation was over the essay. In the case of the client for this project, much of the "questing" is just browsing documentation prepared specifically to guide the learner through filling out their new hire paperwork.

As a result of the feedback from Dr. Hirumi, each part of the plan received some sort of significant modification. Initially, the plan included content to teach some attitudinal content, but that was removed in the final version, because we thought it would be better to allow hospice culture subject matter experts to develop a face-to-face presentation on what they wanted new employees to know. The initial objectives were choppy, and didn't follow 2c's ABCD rule for objectives. The instructional plan also lacked some sort of activity to reinforce the information in the readings. What I imagine for the Accident/Incident Report lesson is to present the new employee with three scenarios. They will need to identify which one requires an Accident/Incident report, then take information from the scenario to fill out a practice form.

The important thing to monitor as revisions were made to the plan is continuity from one part to another. At one point during the revision process, the objective for the learning about the employee assistance program only required learners to identify uses of the program, when in fact the learner also needed to know it was free, voluntary, and confidential.

The other continuity problem surfaced during revisions when we added scenario activities to the process. The objectives only accounted for making choices based on the Hepatitis B information sheet. Since the learners should know from the objectives they will have to apply information from a scenario in addition to the Hepatitis B information page, it was necessary to go back and amend the objectives. There was some discussion during the revision that adding all that information to the objectives "isn't how things are normally done". That was the problem though, the way people normally write objectives is incomplete and/or doesn't align the instruction and evaluation. At this point, the one bit of knowledge of aligning objectives is a reoccurring issue that will probably be one of the educational highlights of this Ph.D. program.

Attachment	Size
EME6613_HOTC_Instructional_Treatment_Plan_2.2_blacked_out.html	14.64 KB
EME6613_Instructional_Plan_Final_Feedback.doc	90.5 KB
EME6613_Instructional_Plan_Preliminary_Feedback.doc	76 KB

Cross cultural training elements

Cross Cultural Communication by Lewis (1999) is a good resource for general, albeit stereotyped, representations of communication behaviors and interactions for many international cultures in the areas of communication patterns, listening habits, audience expectations, leadership styles, and the language of management. Lewis suggests training is needed in each area to know the context in which to consider a message, the possible filters created between speaker and listener, expectations of each party, and the resulting message.

The internet provides many educational opportunities, but is not the answer. It should never replace face-to-face instruction (Gorski, 2001).

Gorski mentions multicultural, web-based training evaluation models, such as Bruce Leland's Evaluating Web Sites: A Guide for Writers (1998), Joe Landsberger's Evaluating Website Content (1999), and Elizabeth E. Kirk's Evaluating Information Found on the Internet (1999), rely on Authority, Currency, Bias, Accuracy, and Credibility. Schrock's Teaching Literacy in the Age of the Internet (1999) contains a list of evaluation criteria for teachers including:

• Dates: Does the site include a notation about when information was placed online or updated?
• Efficiency: How quickly does the page load on the screen?
• Links: Does the site contain original resources, or just links to other original resources? Are links appropriate?
• Navigability: is the site organization obvious?
• Quantity of Information: Is the site interactive, and will it be necessary to return to the site periodically for updated information?
• Requirements: Does the site insist on requirements or registration?
• Uniqueness: Are the unique qualities of the Web a strength or a weakness of the site?

The Executive Training Program in Japan (Lievens, Harris, Van Keer, & Bisqueret, 2003, p. 477)

The Executive Training Program (ETP) is a 12 month training program in Japan aimed at training Europeans managers Japanese business-related practices . The program consists of intensive language courses, university seminars, company visits, and in-house training as a mix of experiential and analytical training methods. Learning is typically in small groups (e.g. "language learning occurs in groups of three"). After the 12 month program, participants work in Japanese host companies for 6 months alongside Japanese coworkers and supervisors to demonstrate their success with the training program.

The Interchange Institute Program (Copeland, 2005)

Goals Of Multicultural Training:

• To maximize the cultural sensitivity
• To learn how to avoid misunderstandings based on cultural differences
• To learn how to communicate verbally and non-verbally with colleagues in other cultures

Methods Used In Multicultural Workgroup Training:

• Short lectures
• Perspective-taking exercises
• Role plays
• Simulation game
• Self-reflection and assessments
• Small group discussion
• Group problem-solving and card-sorting activity
• Question and Answer period
• Action Planning (application of training to trainees' own situation)

Sample One-Day Multicultural Workgroup Program:

• Introduction and Establishment of Expectations and Needs
• What We Do (and Don't) Mean by the Word "Culture"
• Classic Models of the Meaning of Culture
• How Others See US Americans and How Will Others See Me?
• Brief Overview of How Cultural Values Affect Workplace Issues, with emphasis on expectations about leadership, negotiation style, conduct of meetings, and business writing
• Cultural Differences in the Workplace: Data and Application from Around the World
• Communication Styles: The Dangers of Not Understanding the Role of Culture
• Tips for Business Travelers to Host Country
• Application of Training: Analysis of trainees' own management approaches in light of their own cultural values, communication styles, and learning styles, and in light of current multicultural situations
• "Ask the Expert" Question and Answer period for covering any unanswered questions
• Wrap-Up and Evaluation

Contrast-American Method (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000)

According to Bhawuk and Brislin (2000), the Contrast-American Method is a culture self-awareness method where the trainees see a demonstration of a behavior completely different to to one in their own culture. In this method, trainees are videotaped during the training session and debriefed after the session by the trainer. The method has three steps: "it helps the trainees to recognize their own cultural values; they then analyze the contrasts with other cultures; they then finally apply the insight to intercultural interaction. An obvious weakness of the method is that it does not necessarily help the trainees to learn anything specific about the host culture(s) in which they will be interacting" (¶ 8). The learning objective is to develop cultural self-awareness. The authors believe changes in behavior as a result of observing the host country's behaviors will result in the most success in the host country.

Cross Cultural Workshops and Seminars (Delany-Barmann & Minner, 1996)

Three approaches to cross-cultural training are described by Delany-Barmann and Minner (1996) in Table 2.1. Each training workshop is designed for between 12 and 40 participants over age 15. The workshops are intended to establish a foundation for further discussion and training, not necessarily a well rounded preparation for sojourners. Other than discussion and debriefing, there is no other type of evaluation mentioned for the workshops.

Table 2.1
Training Workshops (Delany-Barmann & Minner, 1996)

	Goals and Objectives	Description
Bafa Bafa (¶ 10)	Enhance teaching and learning in a culturally diverse classroom environment Promote and manage cultural diversity within organizations Manage and prevent incidents of racial and ethnic conflict Understand and respond to the needs of different racial and ethnic groups Learn that a person should make up his or her own mind about a culture and not rely on the reports and experiences of others	Divides participants into groups Each group is briefed on their own group's norms, customs, and values Observers from each group visit the other group and return to their group with a report on the opposing culture
BARNGA (¶ 15)	Demonstrate how obvious similarities among people and cultures can be misleading Demonstrate how interpersonal conflict can result unless we acknowledge and respect the distinct underlying assumptions of our actions	Involves a card tournament called Five Tricks for between 12 and 40 participants Communication problems are simulated by having the players interact nonverbally Teams at each table receive different versions of the game rules Works on the principle that participants are not aware of differences between groups until it suddenly surprises them
Tribal Talk (¶ 18)	Focus on communication skills Understand and respond to different ways of communicating Promote and encourage cultural diversity within organizations Create an environment where the needs of different racial and ethnic groups can be understood and met	Groups are asked to work together in tribes and develop their own oral language. Each language should include the following: a greeting a description of an object or person an evaluative statement two sentences referring to basic needs (e.g., food, water, shelter) a farewell After the tribes have developed languages, each member numbers him or herself in sequence (1, 2, 3, 4, etc). All the 1s from each tribe form a new group. The other groups do the same. Within each new group, each member must teach the other members their original tribal language. This is to be done using no English or any other recognizable language.

Self-reference Criterion Method (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000)

Bhawuk and Brislin (2000) also discuss a reference to Lee (1966), the creator of Self-Reference Criterion (SRC). SRC is defined as "the unconscious reference to one's own cultural values in communicating with people who are from other cultures" (¶ 9). The desire to overcome the SRC resulted in the creation of Lee's (1966) cultural analysis system. The four steps in the SRC Method are:

1. Define and evaluate the business problem faced by the sojourner's culture
2. Define and evaluate the business problem faced by the host culture
3. Isolate the SRC influence in the problem and examine how it complicates the interaction
4. Redefine the problem without the SRC influence and find a solution for the optimum business goal situation

Table 2.2 summarizes common features between training programs. Simulation is the most popular method of training. Language training was likely only mentioned in ETP because many other training programs are focused on completing the training in a short time period. Collaborative problem solving and experiential learning approaches were the most common grounded strategies found in the research. All the training has the common objective of trying to get the participants to realize they will have to make an effort to observe, internalize, and adapt to their new host culture.

Table 2.2
CCTP Comparison

	ETP	Interchange Institute	Contrast-American	Bafa Bafa	BARNGA	Tribal Talk	SRC
Lectures	X	X
Role playing	X	X
Simulation		X	X	X	X	X
Self-reflection		X	X	X		X
Small Group Discussion	X	X		X		X
Group Problem Solving		X			X	X	X
Internship	X	X
Language Training	X

References

Bhawuk, D., & Brislin, R. (2000, Jan). Cross Cultural Training: A Review [Electronic version]. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 49(1), 162-192. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.epnet.com/

Copeland, A. P. (2005). Cross-Cultural Training. The Interchange Institute. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.interchangeinstitute.org/html/cross_cultural.htm#Workgroups

Delany-Barmann, G., & Minner, S. (1996). Cross-Cultural Workshops and Simulations for Teachers. The Teacher Educator, 32, 37-47.

Gorski, P. C. (2001). Multicultural Education and the Internet: Intersections and Integrations. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Lewis, R. D. (1999). Cross Cultural Communication: A Visual Approach. Warnford, NH: Transcreen Publications.

Lievens, F., Harris, M. M., Van Keer, E., Bisqueret, Claire. (2003, June). Predicting Cross-Cultural Training Performance: The Validity of Personality, Cognitive Ability, and Dimensions Measured by an Assessment Center and a Behavior Description Interview [Electronic version]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-488. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.epnet.com/

Philcox, W. (2001). Cross-Cultural Training. National Culinary Review, 27-32. Retrieved on May 21, 2005, from http://www.acfchefs.org/trends/crosscultural.html

Cross-Cultural Training Trends and Issues

According to Chang, the trend of globalization is a driver for the need to "understand the nature of work-related adult education programs crossing international boundaries and has affected those who are responsible for developing international training activities" (p. 174). One of the problems he identified for training was communication problems. The communication problems lead to misunderstood needs for education. He cited Biggs (1996) by suggesting that understanding the cultural roots for observed behaviors while a native teaches other natives is essential to successful training (p. 175). Three techniques he identified for teaching to pursue course objectives are asking questions to provide opportunities for two-way communication, telling stories and sharing real examples, and using classmates as a learning resource by having them share topic-related stories (p. 185). Each method was successful in his case study.

Shim and Paprock agree with Chang on the trend of globalization as a driver for cross-cultural training (p. 13). They say employees fail on work assignments in other countries because they have an inability to adapt to the foreign culture. "Only 30 percent of US managers sent on overseas assignments receive even minimal cross-cultural training prior to departure" (p. 15). The issue involved with getting trained in the first place is convincing corporate policymakers just because someone is successful in the United States does not mean they will be successful elsewhere. They identified four effective methods of cross-cultural training for sojourners from research done by Kealey and Protheroe:

1. to provide the practical information on living conditions in the host country;
2. to study political, economic, and cultural facts about the host country;
3. to obtain cultural awareness information on the host culture;
4. experiential learning activities that combine cognitive and behavioral techniques.

Making expatriates become aware of how certain assumptions can constrain their success in the host culture is important to making choices and acting upon new understandings in the host country (Shim & Paprock, pp. 16-17). Statistical analysis identified learning the language of the host country and using it while there had a strong significance in the success of the expatriates in the study (Shim & Paprock, p. 17). The exact amount and content of the cross-cultural training in the Shim and Paprock study wasn't detailed, but their statistics showed having some sort of cross-cultural training prior to arrival, along with language training were the most significant factors in the success of expatriates.

Lievens, Harris, Keer, and Bisqueret (2003) suggest identifying managers with the highest capacity to master cross-cultural training will result in the most successful expatriate assignments. The issue involved is the consistent process of using intuition and unsystematic methods for selecting expatriates. They classify candidates who have the requisite personality characteristics for successful cross-cultural training have above average verbal, numerical reasoning, and general cognitive ability. Although their research did not support any hard statistical links, other than strong cognitive ability as a training requirement, Lievens et al. predict in the future cross-cultural training will involve more selection procedures utilizing assessment center exercises and behavior description interviews.

Cusher, Robertson, Kirca, and Cakmak identified a trend in Turkey by local trainers to develop training materials for outsiders (p. 614). The focus of the training in their study was to help participants understand "key concepts in cross-cultural communication, help participants understand the relationships between culture, communication and language, as well as the role of such concepts as stereotypes and cultural values in the process of making intercultural decisions" (p. 615). Evaluations of the training program identified prejudice and educational differences as major causes of difficulty in cross-cultural communication. A notable fact was the exclusion of religion as an important contributing factor in intercultural communication conflicts (p. 616). In the conclusions, Cusher et al. identified a little-discussed problem with returning expatriates and the concepts of re-entry:

Many individuals who have received training and/or have spent a considerable amount of time living or working for an extended period of time with people different from themselves experience a significant shift in perception of self and others. Returning to one's home community espousing ideas and practices that may be in conflict with traditional beliefs and values can create unexpected obstacles and stress. (p. 625)

Clegg and Gray found a trend with US and European companies using home-country nationals in nations that were less-developed, preferring to use host-country nationals in only in nations that were classified as developed (p. 599). Companies tend to send home-country nationals "to start up operations" and when special technical expertise is needed. Key expatriate skills identified from Mendenhall and Oddou cited by Clegg and Gray were the ability to manage cultural differences, versatility in problem solving methods, and a superior understanding of the organization and its global entirety (p. 601). They make references to the same cultural management issues identified by Shim and Paprock. The explanation is simple in their eyes: a lack of cross-cultural training since companies often send people overseas because of their technical skills, intending to stay for a short term. As a result, the un-trained expatriates often fail at the single assignment they were designated to complete.

Magnini and Honeycutt reinforce Clegg and Gray in their details of required technical expertise for expatriates. For the hotel firms surveyed in the Magnini and Honeycutt study, Chinese firms indicated "ability to adapt" as their leading selection criterion for expatriate hotel managers. The issue for the hotel companies is how to measure "ability to adapt" before assigning a manager to an expatriate position. As part of the research, they developed the surveys noted in Table 4.1 to predict and measure the potential success of managers entering training programs. The statements of the survey are judged on a Likert scale of strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). Only trainees with high scores on the surveys should be assigned overseas.

Table 4.1
Expatriate candidate goal orientation survey (Magnini & Honeycutt, p. 273)

Performance goal orientation

I prefer to do things that I can do well rather than things I do poorly. I'm happiest at work when I perform tasks on which I know that I won't make any errors. The things that I enjoy the most are the things that I do best. The opinions others have about how well I can do certain things are important to me. I feel smart when I do something without making mistakes. I like to be fairly confident that I can successfully perform any task before I attempt it. I like to work on tasks that I have done well on in the past. I fell smart when I can do something better than most other people. I fell that there aren't a lot of new things to learn about managing a hotel. I spend a lot of time thinking about how my performance compares with that of other hotel managers. I always try to communicate my achievements to the corporate office. I fell very good when I have outperformed other managers in my company. It is very important that the corporate office sees me as a good manager.

Learning goal orientation

The opportunity to do challenging work is important to me. When I fail to complete a difficult task, I plan to try harder the next time that I work on it. I prefer to work on tasks that force me to learn new things. The opportunity to learn new things is important to me. I do my best when I am working on a fairly difficult task. I try hard to improve on my past performance. The opportunity to extend the range of my ability is important to me. When I have difficulty solving a problem, I enjoy trying different approaches to see which one will work. It is worth spending a lot of time learning new approaches for dealing with hotel guests. An important part of being a hotel manager is continually improving your management skills. I put a great deal of effort in order to learn something new about managing. It is important for me to learn from every management experience I have. Learning how to be a better manager is of fundamental importance to me.

Conclusion

Overall, trends include the following:

1. the use of screening surveys to find ideal expatriates;
2. the use of local trainers to create training materials;
3. storytelling as a classroom method of instruction;
4. and a push to provide expatriates with some minimal amount of training before departure, preferably including language training.

Common issues discussed include:

1. convincing policymakers cross-cultural training is important for every person, not just long-term assignments;
2. overcoming prejudice and stereotypes;
3. identifying communication problems before they create other problems;
4. and identifying expatriates with the highest likelihood of success in cultural training and adaptation in the host country.

References

Chang, W. (2004). A Cross-Cultural Case Study of a Multinational Training Program in the United States and Taiwan. Adult Education Quarterly, 54(3), 174-192.

Clegg, B. & Gray, S. J. (2002). Australian expatriates in Thailand: some insights for expatriate management policies. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(4), 598-623.

Cushner, K., Robertson, L., Kirca, S., & Cakmak, M. (2003). A cross-cultural material development project to train Turkish development personnel in the Southeastern Anatolia Regional Development Project (GAP). International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 609-626.

Lievens, F., Harris, M. M., Keer, E. V., & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting Cross-Cultural Training Performance: The Validity of Personality, Cognitive Ability, and Dimensions Measured by an Assessment Center and a Behavior Description Interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 476-489.

Magnini, V. P. & Honeycutt, E. D. (2003). Learning orientation and the hotel expatriate manager experience. Hospitality Management, 22, 267-280.

Shim, I. & Paprock, K. E. (2002). A study focusing on American expatriates' learning in host countries. International Journal of Training and Development, 6(1), 13-24.

International Trends and Issues

Jenkins (2005) wrote with a liberal slanted article that predicts the US will fall behind the education of the rest of the world due to a trend in the federal government to cut funding for public schools. According to the article, students will be consigned "to low employment opportunities and poverty" (¶ 4). Jenkins is concerned about the possible elimination of the Perkins Loan program. Rotberg explains the political changes as a natural, unpleasant, tradeoff. Rothberg (2005) illustrates the tradeoff by making the point, "there is [...] an unspoken premise that countries with effective education systems [...] have gotten it right without ever having had to make difficult choices or cope with negative consequences" (¶ 2).

The applicable trend in Rothberg's paper is the change in South Africa of distributing education funds in equal amounts to each student rather than by race. The tradeoff, or issue, involved the high- and middle-class white students getting a poorer education. The application of this type change in the US has been a similar trend for more affluent families to send their children to private school. South Africa has been able to curtail some mid-class families moving to private school by encouraging the families to contribute to the public school. China and Russia are also given as examples, as countries who recently decentralized their education systems. Just as China now has funding inequality, so would a parent rather send their child to a Seminole County, FL school over a Orange County, FL school since Seminole County has a higher-income tax base to fund the school district.

Berman and Singer (2005) reported on a business trend. Boards of major corporations are more cautious when voting on corporate mergers. Accounting "corrections" by the likes of Enron and MCI have made the boards fearful of inheriting hidden accounting problems. Even though the most famous accounting blunders have been based in the US, it has created merger hesitation on a global scale. The US CPA license now requires public accountants to take an additional test on ethics before becoming certified. Training and education in the US will require better indoctrination of ethics and moral code.

A loss of foreign talent in the US is McGrath's (2004) concern. She documented a significant decrease in the number of international students attending graduate programs in several popular US-based universities. China and Australia have recently had much more popular higher education programs than in the past, during the US's "post-World War II period as a magnet for worldwide talent" (McGrath, 2004, ¶ 2). The US will likely have to respond by expediting student visas and making graduate assistantships easier to attain.

The speech by Wishard concentrates on globalization, as does the paper by Mahler (2004). The solution in the speech is to develop a far more common view of the world than "my nation", "my race", or "my religion" (Wishard). Much of the speech is a history lesson which does not outline how to develop a common world view, though certainly learning about other cultures is one of the first steps to understanding why one culture hates another or why two people don't get along. Wishard also identifies developments in technology and spiritual orientations as areas, that with understanding could become unifying elements of the world. Who knows, perhaps one day a common world view would result in the combined views of Christians, Muslims, and Jews as a unified mish-mash of the best parts of each background. Certainly at some point, globalization will result in a common form of government to accommodate efficient global business transactions.

Mahler (2004) is more concerned with new competition as a result of globalization, which was also identified by Alan Greenspan (2005) in his recent testimony. Both see a brighter side of competition as companies are forced to work harder and be more creative to develop new innovations. The demand of more competition will be based on the quality of training and education people have to use as tools. Greenspan recognized the proposed cut in federal education funding, then compared it to politics of his youth. He reminisced about time 40 years ago when politicians predicted the crumbling of the US in the wake of other countries' development. Instead, the US has overcome major problems and remains a leader in the world.

Summary:

Trends identified in the research were as follows:

1. The US federal government is discussing decreases in budgeting for public education while the United Nations is emphasizing education
2. Economic and cultural inequalities are creating inequalities in educational resources
3. Corporate accounting falsifications have created hesitancy in corporate mergers
4. Non-US nations are more attractive as centers for graduate education
5. Globalization will result in the development of more common world views
6. Globalization will place a higher demand on education and training

Issues include:

1. Inequalities in education funding
2. Poor corporate ethics decisions have lead to the hurting of others

References

Berman, D. K. & Singer, J. (2005, Jan 31). Big Deals Are Back; P&G-Gillette Is Latest Signal That Firms Will Spend Again, But With Caution In Mind. Wall Street Journal, C1.

Greenspan, A. (2005, June 9). Fed. Chair Alan Greenspan at House Joint Economic Committee Hearing [Television broadcast]. Washington, DC: C-SPAN.

Jenkins, K. (2005, March 24). Budget Cuts Leave U.S. Out of Global Progress. Black Issues in Higher Education, 22(3), 36.

Mahler, V. A. (2004, November). Economic Globalization, Domestic Politics, and Income Inequality in the Developed Countries: A Cross-National Study. Comparative Political Studies, 37(9), 1025-1053.

McGrath, A. (2004, November 11). A Loss of foreign talent. U.S. News & World Report, 137(18), 76.

Rotberg, I. C. (2005, April). A Special Section of International Education - Tradeoffs, Societal Values, and School Reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 86(8), 661.

Wishard, V. (2005, May). Understanding our Moment in History. Vital Speeches of the Day, 71(14), 442-448.

Summary of cross cultural training elements papers from other students

The cross-cultural training programs have a common goal, to assist in the acculturation of their clientele; however, the mediums and their individual focuses differ between the training programs. Many programs use a combination of different mediums to effectively train their clients while others focus on a specific medium. Some programs even use mixed modes in order to provide both a classroom setting and online training modules. In addition some programs instead of focusing on the acculturation will focus on the practicalities of the different cultures in order to provide information necessary for survival in society.

Important aspects common to all training programs include pre-training assessments of language and culture, relocation counseling and face to face instruction. Worldwork, Vital International, and VIP all use modes such a role-playing, simulations, group discussions, and games in order to provide their clientele with several different methods which individuals can learn. In comparison, Cg Associates concentrates on seminars and Window of the World uses a mixed mode of online modules and face to face interactions. Some programs focus on the practicality instead of the actual acculturation. This can be found especially in the University setting where the focus is on financial necessities and information pertinent to survival such as health care, employment, and transportation. Universities instead of providing seminars, or actual training sessions provide a guideline booklet to assist in international students arrivals to the new country. Worldwork and Cg Associates differed drastically in their instruction method between active workshops for Worldwork and passive lectures for Cg Associates. Likely, the optimal solution is to reinforce passive lectures with some sort of hands-on demonstration of knowledge.

Cross-cultural training programs also differ in their evaluation of their clientele. Olive Garden sends employees to train in Tuscany and upon completion trainees are required to demonstrate their training by preparing a meal. This is similar to the Executive Training Program in Japan where trainees must demonstrate their knowledge of Japanese language and culture by working in Japan. The Institute for Medical Education uses testing to determine if their clients have acculturated. Multi Lingua uses language tests to evaluate where students need help, then they offer on-the-spot assistance with phrase translation. One of the assignments predicted increased use of the internet for training and instruction.

Argument for testing in schools

Disclaimer: I was tasked with taking a side in a debate, and did so. I did not come to an end conclusion in my own thinking as to the validity of certain tests in K-12 or university level schooling

As a graduate of the Texas public education system, I was required, starting in 3rd grade, to pass the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills (TAAS) test for grade advancement and Texas Academic Skills Program (TASP) for entry into The University of Texas for my bachelors degree. I have been in the midst of students who did not pass one or both exams. Opponents of school testing cite research showing long-term damage to students who are retained. In place of standardized tests, strong support systems, high expectations, caring, and more long-term, concept mastery evaluations are suggested (White, 2005, ¶9). I thought in grade school, and continue to think now, the high-profile exams I was required to pass were appropriate queries of my knowledge.

Thesis

Criterion-referenced tests are essential to create credibility and value for diplomas.

Proof

High-stakes tests impact many important decisions including grade promotion, high school graduation, administrative incentives and penalties, and teacher placement (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2003, p. 21). An increasing number of states are requiring students to pass a test to graduate high school, without necessarily providing remediation for students who fail (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2003, p. 21).

Texas has established the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS) academic standards for reading, math, writing, science, and social studies (Student Assessment, Texas Education Agency). In the past, Texas administered the TAAS, and now administers the TAKS test on a criterion-referenced basis. Students and parents receive a report outlining the strengths and weaknesses of the student and a "pass", "pass with academic recognition", or "fail" result for each subject area. Students, parents, and teachers are able to better pinpoint where students and teachers need to concentrate. Over an eight year period, Texas was able to demonstrate, through the TAAS test, an increase in the percent of students meeting minimum state, academic expectations in reading, mathematics, and writing (Texas Assessment of Academic Skills, 2002).

Teachers should be encouraged to break from their bubble of subject-area focus they have traditionally been stuck in from teaching models of the industrial age (Marshak, 2003). A case study in co-teaching revealed how teachers were influenced in states with high-stakes tests and felt compelled to teach only test-related material (Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., Graetz, J., Norland, J., Gardizi, W., & McDuffie, K., 2005). Instead of leaving out non-test teaching materials, teachers communicated with each other to compound educational value in classroom activities, in this case, computer class. In addition to teaching computer modeling, the computer teacher was able to create an activity that used computer modeling to teach world history. Students' test scores improved as a result and students requested copies of the software to take home for additional practice with other subject areas.

Refutation

Opponents of high-stakes testing work on the assumption where high standards are meant to drive low-performing disadvantaged students to work harder. The assumption of the high standards argument is students are all qualified to obtain high school diplomas. While an ideal education system would cycle all students through as educated graduates, not all students have the mental capacity, the personal motivation and persistence, or willingness to fulfill the requirements set forth by the education system. Deficient students are given the opportunity to re-take high-stake tests and should not graduate simply because they showed improvement, a capacity to learn, a willingness to participate, or the persistence to re-take tests and fail. The high school diploma should represent the ability to read, write, and do math for students who can demonstrate their mastery of state academic standards.

An Education Week survey showed "66 percent of teachers thought state tests were forcing them to concentrate too much on what was tested to the detriment of other important topics, and nearly half said they spent a 'great deal of time' helping students prepare for tests" (Doherty, 2002, ¶7). While students should learn more than what is on state tests, it is important for students to master essential, basic subject areas. The requirements on state exams should indeed supersede the education interests of individual teachers.

The American Educational Research Association made a statement concerning high-stakes testing, suggesting accommodations should be made for students not proficient in English (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2003, p. 21). In a country where government, business, and educational transactions are primarily English, high-stakes tests double as an assessment not only of content mastery, but communication skills. The added communication assessment is important, not something to protest. Surveys and research conducted by the government of Manitoba Canada, The Wall Street Journal, and the Association of Legal Administrators found communication and inter-personal skills among the highest demand skills of job applicants (Johnstone & Williams, 2003; Perry, 2002; The Association of Legal Administrators Competency-Based Education Job/Needs Analysis, 2004). Enabling students to avoid gaining proficiency in English does not benefit industries with shortages of job applicants nor the applicants in those industries. Knowing algebra is worthless if you don't understand the question where the details of the algebraic problem is explained.

Conclusion

Criterion-referenced testing is appropriate for schools when linked to the state's academic standards. Teachers can collaborate with others to compound educational activities to make up for time where education is spent directed on passing high-stakes tests. Texas has proven when test content is linked to state academic objectives, teachers and students are able to work together to improve education.

References

The Association of Legal Administrators Competency-Based Education Job/Needs Analysis. (2004, June 28). Association of Legal Administrators. Retrieved on June 27, 2005, from http://www.alanet.org/education/knowledgesurvey.html

Doherty, K. M. (2002, February 27). Assessment. Education Week on the Web. Retrieved June 27, 2005, from http://www.edweek.org/rc/issues/assessment/

Johnstone, P., & Williams, A. (2003, June 19). Manitoba Employer Survey 2000. Government of Canada. Retrieved on June 27, 2005, from http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/en/mb/survey/employer-shortage.shtml

Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. (2003). Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Marshak, D. (2003, Nov). No Child Left Behind: A Foolish Race Into the Past. Phi Delta Kappan, 8(3), 229-231.

Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., Graetz, J., Norland, J., Gardizi, W., & McDuffie, K. (2005, May). Case Studies in Co-Teaching in Content Areas: Successes, Failures, and Challenges. Intervention in School and Clinc, 40(5), 260-270.

Perry, D. (2002, May 20). Do You Have the Skills Most in Demand Today? The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on June 27, 2005, from http://www.careerjournal.com/columnists/perspective/20020520-fmp.html

Student Assessment. Texas Education Agency. Retrieved on June 28, 2005, from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/student.assessment/

Texas Assessment of Academic Skills. (2002). Texas Education Agency. Retrieved on June 28, 2005, from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/student.assessment/reporting/results/swresults/august/g310nse_au.pdf

White, J. (2005, June 30). Activity 1-Arguement Against Testing [Msg 1]. Message posted to http://webct.ucf.edu/

Different types of reliability

Type of reliability	When	How	What
Internal consitency	Assess a single dimension	Correlate each individual item score with the total score.	All the items on your test assess the same construct.
Interrater	Find consistency in the rating of some outcome	Examine the percentage of agreement between raters.	The reliability coefficient for your test indicates a poor, moderate, or high degree of agreement between respondents.
Parallel	Compare several different forms of a test to see if they are equivalent or reliable	Correlate the scores from one form of the test with scores from a second form of the same test with the same content.	Two forms of your test are equivalent to one other.
Test-retest	Reliability over time	Correlate the scores from time 1 with the scores of time 2.	The test gives the same results even if the participants didn't all take it at the same time.

Portfolios

A good portfolio is both summative and formative in nature. The contributions to the portfolio should be evaluated as the portfolio is being created as well as a final evaluation as part of a continuous process.

Portfolios should reflect the immediate assignment task and the overall area of study. The content should reflect the interests, in addition to the abilities, of the student.

Sample essay question

Cognitive Objective:

The student should be able to:

• Identify and describe common characteristics of programming frameworks
• Identify and describe issues related to standardized and open source frameworks in a clear and concise manner
• Reference and provide a short description of at least two popular PHP frameworks
• Evaluate the quality of named frameworks

Test Item:

In an article, titled "Why PHP sucks", on bitstorm.org, Edwin Martin complained about not having a standardized framework for PHP. He cited Struts for JSP developers and .Net for ASP developers as models for a standardized framework for PHP. As opposed to a standardized framework, PHP has a multitude of open source frameworks including Midgard, Horde, Blueshoes, Cake, Seagull, Sourdough, binarycloud, SMART, and many others. Compare and contrast having a standardized framework verses multiple privately developed frameworks. Use your analysis to build an argument defending or refuting Martin's complaint. Limit your response to two pages.

Score Scheme:

Points	Score Basis
10	Identified and described common characteristics of programming frameworks
10	Identified and described issues relating to standardized and open source frameworks in a clear and concise manner
10	Referenced and provided a short description of at least two popular PHP frameworks
15	Effectively evaluated the quality of named frameworks
10	Essay follows APA style guidelines, contains no spelling or grammatical errors, and is completed on time.
55	Total Points

Sample test blueprint

Test Blueprint	Categories
	Knowledge	Comprehension	Application	Analysis	Synthesis	Evaluation	Total	(percentage)
Content Outline	(number of items)
1. The student can state the purposes for various string, database, and graphics functions in PHP. (2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9)	6						6	30
2. Given a line of code, the student will be able to identify parse errors. (1, 4, 7, 10)				4			4	20
3. The student can distinguish standard from PECL modules. (11, 12)	2						2	10
4. Given a programmatic situation, the student can apply a PHP function as a solution. (13, 14, 15, 16)			4				4	20
5. Given generic character types for regular expressions, the student can identify the function of each escape sequence. (17, 18, 19, 20)	4						4	20
Total	12	0	4	4	0	0	20
Percentage	60		20	20			100

Directions
Circle the best answer that either correctly completes each statement or correctly answers the questions.

1. Identify the line of code with a parse error.

1. echo ‘Hello World!’;
2. echo ‘Hello “World”!’;
3. echo “Hello World’s!”;
4. echo ‘Hello World’s’;

2. The purpose of strpos() is to

1. find the first position of an array in a string
2. find the first occurrence of a string
3. insert a string in a specific position of a different string
4. delete the first occurrence of a string

3. The purpose of join() is to

1. add two variables together mathematically.
2. join array elements with a string.
3. concatenate to strings.
4. merge two arrays.

4. Identify the line of code with a parse error.

1. if(strcmp($foo, $bar)) {
2. if strcmp($foo, $bar) {
3. if(substr($foo, $bar)) {
4. if(strtr($foo, $bar)) {

5. The purpose of ksort() is to

1. sort a string starting with capital letters
2. sort an array by values
3. sort an array by keys
4. reverse sort an array by keys

6. $mysqli = new mysqli(‘localhost’, ‘root’, ‘password’); will

1. attempt to open a connection to MySQL
2. return boolean TRUE on success
3. produce a parse error
4. return an array of connection information on success

6. The purpose of mysqli_autocommit() is to

1. turn on or off auto-committing database modifications on InnoDB tables
2. turn on or off auto-committing database modifications on MyISAM tables
3. turn on or off auto-committing database modifications on HEAP tables
4. commit uncommitted SQL transactions

7. Identify the line of code with a parse error.

1. $stmt = $mysqli->prepare(“SELECT * FROM foo WHERE bar=?”);
2. $stmt = $mysqli->prepare(‘SELECT * FROM foo WHERE bar=?’);
3. $stmt = mysqli_prepare($link, “SELECT * FROM foo WHERE bar=?”);
4. $stmt = mysqli->prepare(‘SELECT * FROM foo WHERE bar=?’);

8. break 3; will _________ of a current for, foreach, while, do-while, or switch structure

1. end execution for 3 levels
2. pause execution for 2 levels and resume at the third level
3. pause execution for 3 seconds
4. cause a parse error during the execution

9. The require statement

1. requires a specific variable parameter for continued execution
2. includes and evaluates a specific file
3. requires an end user to enter a password
4. will not cause a parse error on failure

10. Identify the line of code with a parse error.

1. $i += $factor;
2. $i *= $factor;
3. $i #= $factor;
4. $i |= $factor;

Directions
Each statement is either true or false. Circle True for each statement that is true and False for each statement that is false.

11. GD2 is a standard extension

1. True
2. False

12. mailparse is a PECL extension

1. True
2. False

Directions.
Write a PHP function answer to each question in the space below each question.

13. What function would most accurately compare two string passwords?
            strcmp()

14. What function would calculate the sha1 hash of a file?
            sha1_file()

15. What function would convert a string into variables?
            str_parse()

16. How would an administrator remove erroneous spaces from the end of a string?
            rtrim()

Directions
Complete each sentence with the missing PCRE character match.

17. \s represents any _________ character/digit
            whitespace

18. \W represents any __________ character/digit
            non-word

19. \d represents any _________ character/digit
            decimal

20. \w represents any __________ character/digit
            word

In-class writing: still life

Begin time: 7:47pm
End time: 7:49pm
Date: Sept 5, 2006
Location: Classroom Building 1, Room 113 at University of Central Florida
Observer: David Kent Norman
Frame: Classroom observation exercise

Time	ON Observer Notes	OC Observer Comments
7:47	Shadow
	Grey background
	Brick wall
	Building in background	Broken with three horizontal lines that are white
	Top hat on shadow figure	Looks like also wearing coat or cloak and is male body build
7:48	Top of building has extra windows	Windows follow a vertical pattern

Solo observation exercise

Assignment Description

Schedule this the week we do not meet on campus. Duration: 15-20 minutes. Decide on a place, a time, and a frame or question to organize your observation. Make sure you provide a map or photo clearly labelled. If you go to observe a speaker or an event and the event is cancelled, either: 1) reschedule your observation or 2) re-frame your frame or question. (Don't write an observation of kids at the zoo after you arrive and find out the zoo is closed!) Feel free to pick a setting that is interesting for you (like the example where the observations were done at a cliff diving location). Please see the rubric which lists other requirements for this assignment which we looked at in class, like the use of a formal heading. Please use OC, ON, and MN which were covered in the class PowerPoint (See the PPT for an example). Please see the samples, but note both the strengths and the weaknesses evident in these samples.

• Keep in mind the prior work needed to set up the observation
• Practice OC ON and MN beforehand if that helps you
• Print our a grid with columns already labeled if that helps you
• Observe for 15-20 minutes
• Keep in mind you may feel awkward writing
• Consider bringing a book or something to write on & shield your writing

Paired observation exercise

Instructions

Schedule this with a partner this week or the next week (over two weeks) Duration: 15-20 minutes Use: OC, ON, and MN (TN and Spradley’s Matrix, optional) Conduct an observation with a partner Keep fieldnotes, write up your notes into a memo. Exchange your notes and memo via CourseMail. Write a half page to a page responding to your partner’s work (strengths and weaknesses) Submit the Fieldnotes, Memo, and Response from your partner to the HW Box in one document. (Make sure you clearly label the Response with your name and your partner’s name.) Decide on a place, a time, and a common frame or question to organize your observation. Make sure you orient yourselves the same way (for example, label people and the objects in the setting the same way, so that it is easier for you to compare your observations). As with your solo observation, if you go to observe a speaker or an event and the event is cancelled, either: 1) reschedule your observation or 2) reframe your frame or question. (Don’t write an observation of penguins on a glacier after you arrive and find out the glacier has melted!) Feel free to pick a setting that is interesting for you both (like the example where the observations were done in a casino).

• Keep in mind the prior work needed to set up the observation
• Practice OC ON and MN beforehand if that helps you
• Print out a grid with columns already labeled if that helps you
• Observe for 15-20 minutes
• Do not talk to each other once you begin your observation
• You may want to sit apart
• Keep in mind you may feel awkward writing
• Consider bringing a book or something to write on and shield your writing

Article Review: Write-up

The study lead by Judith Correson Caruso (2004) was started as a result of a two part publication by Marc Prensky (2001a, 2001b) where he coined the terms "Digital Native" and "Digital Immigrant" to describe students' use of technology.

Methodology

• Literature review
• Review of the 2003 study
• Quantitative portion of the study included 9350 freshmen and 9050 seniors with 4373 respondents over 13 higher education institutions
• Qualitative portion had 132 students in focus groups over six institutions

Findings

• Technology ownership
• 93.4% of respondents own a computer
• 70.7% and 57.1% of seniors and freshmen respectively owned a desktop
• 38.5% and 52.7% of seniors and freshmen respectively owned a laptop
• 11.9% overall owned PDAs
• Internet access
• 82.2% of on campus freshmen had Internet access through their university
• 56.4% of seniors used a commercial Internet service provider
• Students' satisfaction with Internet service was based partially on the institutions IT environment
• Students are often frustrated with crowded computer labs
• Patterns of technology use
• The applications students use on their electronic devices are primarily for educational purposes, secondarily for communication, and lastly for presentation
• Students often used computers for writing documents, sending e-mail, and surfing the Internet simultaneously.
• Hours of technology use
• Academic computer use has a strong relationship to students' academic major and class status.
• Level of skill
• Students gave themselves high ratings with regards to the skill they had attained with respect to applications for communication, word processing, and the Internet.
• Seniors ranked themselves higher with regards to tools such as Powerpoint and spreadsheets.
• Qualitative and quantitative responses differed with regards to the skills students attained. Quantitative results showed students had all the skills they need whereas qualitative results showed students only had enough minimal skills to accomplish specific tasks, with no problem-solving skills or in-depth application knowledge.
• Information technology in the classroom
• Students made a note of preference for technology in the classroom
• Previous positive experiences with technology had a major impact on the preference for classroom technology
• GPA did not have a significant impact on technology preferences
• Impact of technology in the classroom
• The activity with the highest impact was "helped me to better communicate with the instructor".
• Benefits of the use of technology in the classroom
• Students identified convenience as one of the primary benefits of using IT in class.
• Good use of technology helped students learn
• Barriers to the use of information technology in the classroom
• 16.7% of students reported using IT in the classroom felt like extra work
• 14.1% of students reporting having trouble running applications on their computer
• 13.4% of students had limited access to a printer
• 9.7% of students had a lack of technical support
• Course management systems
• Use of technology was most often defined as using a course management system
• Students who had a stronger preference for technology in the classroom had a lower preference for using a course management system
• There was a positive correlation between a higher percentage of students using a course management system with a higher positive assessment of the content management system at that institution.
• Course management system features used
• Students Perceived benefits of using a CMS

Future trends

• Information technology use in the classroom is primarily for convenience rather than for improving learning
• Six trends are likely to lead the way for improved information technology adoption for instruction:
• Data mining
• Increased student and instructor information literacy to pair with academic standards
• Improvement of information technology quality and usability
• Proliferation of scholarly information
• Integration of new technologies, potentially including virtual reality, simulation, video games, or modeling
• Improved planning and creation of work plans for implementations of technology in learning

Conclusion

• Technology is primarily being used for convenience, communication, and management
• Results are only a snapshot
• Students have a working understanding of technology, but need more in-depth improvements

Caruso, J. B. (2004 September). ECAR study of students and information technology, 2004 Convenience, connection, and control. Educause Center for Applied Research. Retrieved on September 5, 2006, from http://www.usit.uio.no/it/suit/stud2004-rapport/ecar.pdf

Prensky, M. (2001, October). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon 9(5). Retrieved November 25, 2005, from the Marc Prensky Web site: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf

Prensky, M. (2001, December). Do they really think differently? On the Horizon 9(6). Retrieved November 25, 2005, from the Marc Presnsky Web site: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part2.pdf

Theory: Write-up for Conceptual Framework

In a two part publication by Marc Prensky (2001a, 2001b), he outlined changes he believes have been affecting the decline of education in the US. Prensky makes the assertion that the thinking patterns and brains of today's students have fundamentally and irreversibly changed, to a point where our education system is not designed to teach to the new thinking patterns. "Digital Immigrants," those instructors of the pre-digital age, struggle to teach "Digital Natives," who's "native language" is grounded in electronics. Though Prensky cites some indirect evidence to reinforce his claims, he confesses he had not directly observed Digital Natives (2001b). This study concentrates on investigating Prensky's specific claim that Digital Natives prefer their graphics before text (2001a).

His list of causes for change includes computers, video games, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and other digital toys. He also makes the claim that students are spending six times more of their time playing video games and watching TV than reading. Prensky named his new breed of student the "Digital Native." The remaining population, who was not born into a digital lifestyle, is conversely named "Digital Immigrant."

The evidence Prensky (2001b) cites for why Digital Natives think differently is based in neuroplasticity, social psychology, and studies of children using games for learning. He discusses psychological malleability, attention span, and the design of games as variables within each respective category of evidence. He claims the difference between Natives and Immigrants is evident in teaching styles and is the cause of why Natives can't pay attention to instructors.

Prensky identifies Digital Immigrants as a population more likely to use the Internet as a secondary resource, print documents rather than review them on a computer screen, and call email recipients to confirm receipt of emails. Part of the claim of difference between Natives and Immigrants is a language barrier, much like children might only know about turntables or phonographs from a history class. Digital Natives are accused of having "the attention span of a gnat" for old ways of learning, favoring instead anything else (2001b). As such, Prensky outlines five generalizations for the preferences of Natives and Immigrants which he thinks affect learning.

Prensky (2001a) believes Digital Natives prefer to receive information quickly, parallel process, and multi-task. He contends Natives prefer random access to resources, graphics in presentations before text, do best when they are networked, and have instant gratification, with frequent rewards. Finally, natives prefer games to "serious" work. Conversely, Prensky's Immigrants prefer performing linear tasks slowly, individually, as part of a serious process.

One explanation Prensky offers for the evolution of digital migration relates back to adoption in cultural migration theory. In cultural migration, children easily adopt new ways of the culture, forcibly resisting the old. It is the older members of the population who are forced to adopt the new ways.

Eggen and Kauchak (1999) say a learning experience involves dispositions and attitudes, metacognition, and general transfer of knowledge. In fact, the more widely recognized process of learning is more complex. The Modal Model (Bruning, Schraw, Norby, & Ronning, 2004; Healy & McNamara, 1996) defines information processing in terms of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory and short-term memory is limited by attention, prior knowledge, and the context in which experiences occur (Bruning et.al., 2004).

Attention is important for converting cues in sensory memory to working memory to be processed for long-term memory (Ormrod, 2006). Without the transfer of inputs from sensory memory to the higher parts of the memory chain, learners cannot rehearse information in short-term memory to remember the inputs in long-term memory (Bruning et.al., 2004; Eggen & Kauchak, 1999). Complaints of students not paying attention in the classroom is not new (Kassinove & Summers, 1968; Wetstone & Friedlander, 1974). Gagné (1969) made his attention research the top-most important part of his instructional strategy. Research of graphics in education before the "digital age," shows evidence that students prefer colors in presentations (Gaines, 1970). The Gaines publication references 29 publications related to color-forms acting as a instinctual stimulus or preference for children. The placement of items on the screen determines the importance of the content; items higher on the screen appear to the viewer to be more important and attract attention (Thorsen, 2006). The content at the top of the screen should be used to grab students' attention.

Schema theory relates to reader expectations for inputs (Garner, 1987). When incoming information fits readers' expectations, the information can be encoded into memory quickly (Garner, 1987). In technical prose, comprehension schemas are based on the extraction of information based on extracting the microstructure from text and deriving a macrostructure to serve as the "gist." The macrostructure parts are stored in memory and are used for future memory expansion, recall, and inferences (Kintsch & van Dijk, 1978). Readers' goals are based on their within-culture "textual-schemata", which can be predicted based on what readers consider relevant based on their existing macrostructure (Garner, 1987). Readers' existing schema classifies all propositions of inputs as either relevant or irrelevant (Kintsch & van Dijk, 1978).

Motivation is a key component behind the dispositions and attitudes of learning situations (Mueller, 1992). The field of behavioral psychology, or more simply Ivan Pavolv's conditioned response study, may serve as some explanation for graphical preferences of Digital Natives. Combined with cognitive psychology, or the relationship between environmental events and their outcomes, organisms learn particular situations produce particular results (Mueller, 1992). Digital Natives' experience with favorable results from graphical activities may also have a link in cognitive psychology.

All living organisms must categorize experiences to survive since not every situation should be treated the same (Smith, 2004). Learners also have a general state of prediction and expectation (Smith, 2004). The result is that we are far more likely to care about what is going to happen in the future than what is happening right now. Smith says prediction is the core of reading because it cuts down on the number of possible alternatives when we decide what to do with what our eyes are looking at. One of the constraints of prediction is prior experience and knowledge (Smith, 2004).

Smith goes on to discuss two sides of reading, which he names visual and non-visual. The more non-visual information a person has, the less visual information they need to understand what their eye are seeing and vice versa. When reading is difficult, it is because of a deficit in one of the two areas of visual or non-visual input, the link between the brain and visual input can be a bottleneck and cause functional blindness. The functional blindness causes critical information for understanding to not be passed down the memory chain: sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. This point is only exasperated by the link to prior experience where Klausmeier, Ghatala, and Frayer (1974) found prior experience can lead subjects to ignore parts of a later task. Here, the preference of Prensky's Digital natives to have graphical presentation first is a result of the failure for the learners to analyze text stimuli in sensory memory as a cue fore relevant response (Mueller, 1992). On the other hand, noise in a message, irrelevant details, or lack of relevant prior knowledge may serve as a distraction, disruption, or activation of the wrong prior knowledge in a learning experience (Clark & Lyon, 2004).

To date, there are no theories or conceptual frameworks to link Prensky's observations with a solid foundation of research. The preferences of learners may be impacted as a result of conditioning to specific environments; however, even with differing backgrounds of electronic exposure, digital immigrants and digital natives should have statistically insignificant differences exposed to a similar, base set of optimal learning conditions which fit the learning abilities of students outside the window of digital aptitude. Clark and Lyons (2004) give a formula of conditions to support learning with six psychological events, which may support higher level framework of learning. They also put differences between learners on the same level of importance for creating optimal learning conditions, citing prior knowledge and special ability as limiting variables. While using Doom, a classic computer game, in a lesson to teach 20-year-olds may not have the same impact on Digital Immigrants, the reason Digital Immigrants may not have similar impact is not because of limited digital experience per-say, but rather that they simply don't share the same prior knowledge as the Digital Natives who played Doom. There would be a similar situation within a group of Digital Natives if some had not played Doom when others had; the link to building on prior knowledge would be different.

References

Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., Norby, M. M., & Ronning, R. R. (2004). Cognitive psychology and instruction (4th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21-29. Retrieved on July 27, 2006, from the University of Southern Queensland Web site: http://www.usq.edu.au/material/unit/resource/clark/media.htm

Clark, R. C., & Lyons, C. (2004). Graphics for learning: Proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.

Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (1999). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Gagne, R. M., & Rohwer, W. D., Jr. (1969). Instructional psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 20, 381-418.

Gaines, R. (1970 December). Children's selective attention to stimuli: Stage or set? Child Development, 41(4), 979-991.

Garner, R. (1987). Metacognition and reading comprehension. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Healy, A. F, & McNamara, D. S. (1996). Verbal learning memory: Does the modal model still work? Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 143-172.

Kassinove, H., & Summers, M. (1968 January). The developmental attention test – A preliminary report on an objective test of attention. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24(1), 76-78.

Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, T. A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological review, 85(5).

Klausmeier, H. J., Chatala, E. S., & Frayer, D. A. (1974). Conceptual learning and development: A cognitive view. New York, NY: Academic Press, Inc.

Mueller, R. J. (1992). Instructional psychology: Principles and practices. Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing Company.

Ormrod, J. E. (2006). Essentials of educational psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Prensky, M. (2001, October). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon 9(5). Retrieved November 25, 2005, from the Marc Prensky Web site: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf

Prensky, M. (2001, December). Do they really think differently? On the Horizon 9(6). Retrieved November 25, 2005, from the Marc Presnsky Web site: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part2.pdf

Smith, F. (2004). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read (6th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Thorsen, C. (2006). TechTactics: Technology for teachers second edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Fieldwork: Interview Transcript and Memo

Instructions: Duration 20 minutes. Interview one person (NOT your partner) using your questions for your mini-study and then share the transcript with your partner for peer review. Here you are: 1) practicing the interview process and 2) testing your questions.

Please follow the rubric and submit (as one document) your transcript, the related memo and any field notes (optional). Clearly label each section. Note that your peer review is a separate assignment. Once you have transcribed your interview, please send the transcription and your memo to your peer for critque, and likewise give them written feedback for their work on the interview. Please see Padgett for details on the transcription.

Proposal: Presentation Slideshow

A Pilot Study for EDF 7475: Instructional Technology Students' Perceptions of How Age Impacts Proficiency with Electronics

Problem: Marc Prensky makes his conclusions ("research") based his observation from memory
Question: Are Prensky's observations reproducible in the minds of other educators?
Significance: Impacts presentation of content to learners of different backgrounds.

See our texts...

Lit review: Scarce supply of academic research related to Prensky; industry uses his coined terms
Clark & Lyons (2004) "Graphics for Learning" provides a base conceptual framework
Ask educators if their experience matches Prensky

See our texts and the readings related to the IRB

• Population: UCF Instructional Technology listserv
• IT Chair leading research on Prensky
• Researcher has been studying adult learning theory and how varying display formats affects learning

Data

Triangulate:
Distribute web-based questionnaire
Cite similar studies
Quote existing adult learning theory

Interpretivism:
Why?
No validated instrument exists to measure "digital propensity". Even lead researchers in graphics for learning (Clark & Lyons) don't make a definitive declaration to support or refute Prensky.
How?
Use triangulation to compare the results of the questionnaire to educators with existing similar studies and adult learning theory.

Methodological Limitations

Differential selection and selection maturation interaction: Subscribers to the IT listserv have likely had exposure to the topic from professors and have background that may skew their responses.
Self reporting error and bias
Random sampling error: Questionnaire is available to every subscriber. Only particular people may respond.
Instrumentation: Un-piloted questionnaire may not test what it is meant to test

Next steps

• Dissertation topic "An investigation of the relationship between insurance employees' digital propensity and their reactions to instruction"
• Helps form the basis for a hypothesis of the outcome of the dissertation topic

Works Cited

Warne, D. (2006, August 23). Unlock work internet or risk losing staff: Microsoft. APC Magazine. Retrieved on August 23, 2006 from http://www.apcstart.com/site/dwarne/2006/08/1104/unlock-work-internet-or-risk-losing-staff-microsoft

Clark, R. C., & Lyons, C. (2004). Graphics for learning: Proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.

Prensky, M. (2001, October). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon 9(5). Retrieved November 25, 2005, from the Marc Prensky Web site: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf

Prensky, M. (2001, December). Do they really think differently? On the Horizon 9(6). Retrieved November 25, 2005, from the Marc Presnsky Web site: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part2.pdf

Mini Study Analytic Memos [partial]

The Prensky stuff I have been doing has been planned to be researched on insurance industry professionals. When I piloted the survey instrument for the Digital Propensity Index to a sample of the professionals I had planned on surveying, I only had a 0.4% response rate compared to over 4% for undergrads, 10% for the graduate students, and over an estimated 30% for instructional technology cohort, using the same contact emails. It may be time to re-review the Dillman TDM for the 2007 update on doing surveys. I may also need to ask Howard at CHL Marketing in person if I could use his list of customers as contacts.

The idea behind piloting to the insurance professionals, even though I wanted to save them for my dissertation, was to make sure the DPI questionnaire was valid for them. Unfortunately, I probably will not make that discovery, nor will I get enough responses in my dissertation, using that audience and a quantitative method, to graduate. That may mean it is time to open my realm of considerations to a more mixed-method type of survey.

---

Dr. Hirumi forwarded an email to the Instructional Technology listserv about a researcher in the UK who is expanding on Prensky's research, and bringing it to the attention of government. Though I thought some of the comments in the article were made for flash and drama, it still had very little real evidence to explain the differences between Digital Immigrants and Digital Natives.

The article discussed having children get more exercise to release good chemicals in the brain. One of the points said children play games before going to sleep, which releases chemicals in the brain to keep them awake longer when they actually do try to fall asleep, then suffer in school from sleep deprivation. While that doesn't have anything to do per say with instructional technology or the design of instruction, it is a notable point of interest to not have your kids playing games right before they go to bed. In fact, I fail to see why any of the article is related to the design of instruction.

---

Preliminary findings appear to show comments on the following items related to technology, electronics, and digital toys:

Digital Immigrants	Mixed	Digital Natives
Telephones Use VCRs Simple computer functions Copy machines Library searches Typing Digital cameras Limited technological proficiency DVD players Basic features of mobile phones Limited knowledge of Microsoft Office Prefer traditional lecture Communicate face-to-face or by conference call Prefer instruction on paper	Internet navigation Word processing Forwarding of emails	Program VCRs LEET speak Instant messaging MySpace Shortcuts Use of icons and buttons Comfortable with electronics Change ringtones on mobile phones PDAs Blogging Play computerized games Use portable music players (iPods) Full functional knowledge of Microsoft Office Communicate by online chat Prefer web-based instruction Only meet face-to-face to formalize and finalize projects

A recurring theme is how Digital Immigrants use electronics for task completion, whereas Digital Natives additionally use electronics for entertainment.

One downside of interviewing people already potentially familiar with Prensky is how one person preferred to argue with how I asked questions and my use of "Digital Native" and "Digital Immigrant," rather than just answer as I had asked.

I noted one respondent age 60+ said "old school" college processors will deliver course materials as "force fed, instructor delivered, and stale." If older people are truly Immigrants, should they think instruction is stale, even if it is their preference?

Attachment	Size
Norman,David_Kent-Analytic_memos.pdf	557.43 KB

Practice interview and memo

The real participant's name has been removed to protect anonymity.

The interview process has been related to something I have been working on researching for several semesters. Unfortunately, I have spent much of my discussion time during research talking with other instructional technology academics about the topic of Marc Prensky's Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants. The purpose of this interview was to talk with someone who I viewed as borderline between a Digital Immigrant and Digital Native so they could potentially see both sides of the characteristics between the two. Included is an analytic memo and transcript of the interview.

It also served as a pre-pilot to my mini-pilot study for EDF7475a Qualitative Research in Education. The questions were pre-written and approved by the University of Central Florida IRB committee. The informed consent document was read, for the most part, verbatim from the version the IRB approved, with exceptions for the obvious differences. The original informed consent document was designed for an anonymous, web-based questionnaire.

The overall goal of the questionnaire was get other thoughts about the accuracy of the adjectives Digital Native and Digital Immigrant, coined by Marc Prensky. Prensky's descriptions of each type of person are based in a large part on age, which is why Anonymous was a convenient participant, as closely randomly selected as possible. Generally, a Digital Native is named as such because they grew up with video games, mobile phones, the Internet, digital cameras, and so on, whereas Digital Immigrants did not have such technologies as children, so they have had to adapt to incorporate them in their lifestyle.

Before I started the interview, I expected Digital Natives to be more simply defined as a young person and a Digital Immigrant as and old geezer. I was actually concerned the answers to my questions would be so short and matter-of-fact, I wouldn't have much to follow up on. I even got a little adrenaline rush of fear when she asked what a Digital Native was. The interview instantly got a feeling of a difficult exam rather than a casual interview. I've taken plenty of tests where I just have no idea what the answer to a question is, so I was glad with Anonymous picked up and ran along with an answer. It was almost like she was thinking aloud, which was great for extracting information from the interview process. She broke the parts of the terminology down to things she was familiar with.

At times, in the interview, she seemed to stray from the topic to tell some sort of personal story I didn't think at the time had much to do with the interview questions. In reflection, I could have probably asked follow-up questions to tie her personal story back to the question and make her talk even more and faster. For example, Prensky suggests Digital Immigrants won't be as successful as Digital Natives unless they make an effort to become Digital Immigrants, as opposed to being digitally ignorant. When Anonymous started talking about her Mexican neighbor, I might have been able to tie that in to success; for example, something along the lines of, "How do you think not learning English affected your neighbors' success in life?"

I feel like there should be a set of follow-up questions related to Anonymous's line of thinking about resistance to new technology, then saying Digital Immigrants should make multi-dollar business out of it. That might have better helped define the business relationship she was putting on the differences between Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants.
As the interview went on, the conversation turned from an awkward series of pauses, to something more like a free-flowing brainstorm. Getting to the brainstorm stage of the interview, and so quickly, made it kind of disappointing for the interview to end, especially since I have so much of this topic riding on my dissertation.

In terms of inferences, she thought Digital Immigrants were hard-working, self made business owners. Digital Natives were more likely to follow a structured, incremental series of promotions through a corporation. She saw how not every culture or country is digitally fluent. She agreed, in part, with Prensky to say older people would prefer to do things in a more face-to-face manner, whereas a younger person would prefer Internet-enabled methods of communication.

Trying to interview in a noisy restaurant, while your participant is trying to eat, with a limited lunch hour may not have been the best environment for me to have done this interview. The time constraint for their lunch period may have kept her answers shorter than they could have been. That was especially evident at the end of the interview when she politely asked if we could wrap up the interview. Also, asking someone I didn't know makes it hard for me to ask follow-up questions later on. However, on the other hand, the questionnaire and IRB approval are all based on a matter of anonymity in the first place, so I have a better understanding for why a researcher might go through all the extra effort to make a study confidential as opposed to anonymous in nature.

I did not take any notes during the interview. I was trying so hard to keep her attention with eye contact; I didn't feel comfortable with recording and writing things. In retrospect, I probably should have just asked her if doing both was alright with her.

 

1	DKN: Thank you for agreeing to be interviewed today, so I can practice my interviewing for class. The participant asked to be identified as simply Anonymous. (.) This interview should take 15 or 20 minutes. Our location is the Panera Bread (.) on uh, (.) in Waterford Lakes. (.) [shuffling paper] I'm going to read a document to you that is important for your own protection.
2	Ok. (.) What is it?
3	DKN: The school has a procedure (.) er (.) office or whatever called IRB that's supposed to monitor the studies done at the university to make sure nobody is hurt in any way during research projects. (.) I'm going to read the (.) um (.) disclaimer to you that they had me submit for approval. Ready?
4	Yes.
5	DKN: Ok. Just stop me if at any point you don't understand or agree with something (.) I am a graduate student in Instructional Technology at the University of Central Florida. I am conducting a pilot study this fall, the purpose of which is to determine perceptions of how Instructional Technology students think age affects proficiency with using electronics. (.) This research study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Central Florida (UCF). (.) Your interview will be conducted in via an online survey service. The link is below. The questions will be predetermined. There will be a free response area at the end of the survey where you may suggest topics and opinions in any area you feel is relevant to the topics presented. The survey may be completed at your convenience. (.) In your case, your responses will not be anonymous or confidential. They will she shared with the rest of the students in my class and my professor, and might be used in any papers I publish in the future, even though I'm not quite sure if I would actually include this interview. (.) There are no (.) anticipated risks, compensation or other direct benefits to you as a participant in this interview. The survey should take approximately 15 minutes to complete. You are free to withdraw your consent to participate and may discontinue your participation in the interview at any time without consequence. If you have any questions about this research project, please contact my faculty supervisor, Dr. Laura Blasi at: 407/823-1761. Information regarding your rights as a research volunteer may be obtained from: (.) Barbara Ward, Institutional Review Board (IRB) University of Central Florida (UCF) (.) 12202 Research Parkway, Suite 501; Orlando, Florida 32826-3252 Telephone: (407) 823-2901 (.) If you decide to participate in this research study, you must be at least 18 years old and give consent that I can get for archival on this recording. If you agree, go ahead, say you're over 18, say your name, and say you agree.
6	My name is Anonymous, I'm well over 18, and I'm more than happy to take yer survey.
7	DKN: Ok, then. (.) Question 1. (.) Based just on the label "Digital Immigrant", what skills would you imagine such a person having with electronics?
8	Uh (.) A what?
9	DKN: A Digital Immigrant. If I pointed at someone and called them a Digital Immigrant, what skills would you think they had with electronics?
10	I guess (.) since it has the word immigrant in it (.) they wouldn't be very experienced with them (.) but then even immigrants have some sort of exposure to a new land. I guess by that you mean someone who is learning electronics so they can adapt to a new environment. I always think of New York when I hear the word immigrant and pictures I've seen of immigrants getting off boats to see the US for the first time. With that mental picture I see someone who wants to learn how to be a US citizen, or in this case, someone who wants to learn how to use electronics, but has kind of an old accent of their old ways. You know (.) as I think about it more (.) there are also Mexican immigrants who I also have noticed don't necessarily even try to learn English. I had a neighbor once who's wife didn't even know English. We just waved at each other in the driveways and I talked to the husband when he was home since he worked in retail. So with that picture, maybe this Digital Immigrant person is resisting new technologies? Could you clarify it for me?
11	DKN: Well, (.) I already have an idea of my own. (.) I'm more interested in what you think about it.
12	Alright fine. Uhm (.) In that case, (.) I'm going to hope you have a positive outlook on life (.) and I'll go with the New York images. Then a Digital Immigrant is someone who sees all the new electronics out in the world and wants a piece of the action. I bet it doesn't take them long to be that guy who owns Blockbuster and the football team, who started from nothing, worked hard, and made a multi gazillion dollar business out of it.
13	DKN: Alright (.) I think that covers that question. I'm very curious to hear about the next topic. So question 2. Based solely on the label "Digital Native", what skills would you imagine such a person having with electronics?
14	I had a feeling something like that was coming. [chuckle] I don't think a Digital Native would have an appreciation for the things available to them. Cell phones are just a part of their normal, daily life. They just expect email to be there and work. I think of entitlements when I think of natives, but I'm not sure what exactly is an electronic entitlement. I spose the Internet could be an entitlement. It's just always there, it's the basis for a lot of communication and business. They probably get their news off the internet instead of from the TV. Since it's probably just something normal to them, they wouldn't even realize how cool it is to be able to get an old book off the Internet from a library in another continent. They wouldn't have the same attitude to do cool stuff with it like an immigrant would.
15	DKN: Alright (.) now describe how the formal education of a "Digital Immigrant" might differ from a "Digital Native."
16	Why does it have to differ? Can't they have the same background?
17	DKN: Well, like I said before, I already have thoughts on the matter. I'll back up then. Do you think a Digital Immigrant would have different formal education than a Digital Native?
18	I don't know why they would. Someone in their 20's could get a Ph.D. just the same as someone who's had their Ph.D. since 1960 and they could be in different countries from different colleges of learning, like business and biology. (.) I spose they could have different ways of having done their homework. The old guy probably had to use a card catalog on the library whereas the young one searched Google all the time and complained about their professors in a blog somewhere. (.) You know, I complained about a professor online once and they actually found it and confronted me about it. I don't recommend it. At least wait until after you graduate. By then, you probably won't care about complaining anymore.
19	DKN: I guess I may need to revise that question in the future.
20	Yeah, I think so.
21	DKN: Next, describe how you think a 19-year-old college Freshman would prefer to receive their course materials.
22	I bet they want everything by email. They probably just want to talk to their professor over Yahoo Messenger or something. You know, I bet all the new students in college that bring laptops to class don't even listen to the lectures. I can see them surfing the internet, checking their email, blogging if that's what it's still called, downloading the newest and coolest new games. Kids are always talking about how bored they are or how tired they are. They probably want to just sleep in till noon every day, goof off in front of the TV, and get to the school junk whenever it's more convenient. Maybe they open an email in the morning and decide not to work on it till after dinner.
23	DKN: Alright, now describe how you think a 19-year-old college Freshman would prefer to collaborate on a group project versus a 60-year-old retiree.
24	First, I bet the retiree is the one that takes over the group leadership. They probably try to setup a face-to-face meeting somewhere, exchange phone numbers, addresses, email information. Meanwhile, the 19-year-old is probably thinking to themselves that they just want to meet online. You know, I've heard that before, but I've never really quite understood what it means to meet online. Do people really set up cameras and try to have a screen full of other people's cameras? My thinking outloud is probably driving you nuts, huh.
25	DKN: Absolutely not. You're actually being quite helpful.
26	I don't know how, but anyway. The freshman probably wants to write some Office documents and fire them back and forth via email. The old guy probably wants to meet at the library in a study room and draw on the caulk board.
27	DKN: I think that will do for that question. Next, describe how you think a college professor would prefer to generate and present lessons to 19-year-old college freshmen.
28	Powerpoint seems like it would be a popular choice. I bet you can even get slides from the book publishers now so you don't even have to create the content yourself. Even if they can't get them from the publishers, they probably copy a bunch of text from the textbooks that the students don't read anyway then read the Powerpoints to the students during class. I guess if they were a really old professor, they could have some overheads or something.
29	DKN: Can you give an example of when a technology boundary negatively affected your success on a project for work or school?
30	I procrastinated on an assignment once. It was for a web class where we had to use webct and upload the final work to the homework dropbox thingie. I was ready to turn it in at the last minute, but my internet connection went down. By the time I called Bellsouth, got everything working again, the dropbox thing was closed. I ended up having to email the assignment through webct email, which the professor never checked, and I had a bunch of headaches explaining why the assignment was late, the professor complaining about it not being turned in, in a way that made it organized for them to grade papers, and. It was just a bad experience. I ended up getting 20 points knocked off the assignment, which still makes me mad because I had the work done, it was just my connection and the professor didn't believe me. I did learn not to procrastinate quite as much, though.
31	DKN: Can you give an example of when you perceived age was a boundary in the success of a project at work or school?
32	I always like to think I'm smarter than my boss. My boss told me once, though, that I wasn't old enough to have the experience to handle being promoted. I sure didn't like that answer since I thought I was smarter than him in the first place. Who knows, maybe I said something to piss him off. Needless to say, I don't work there anymore or talk to that jerk. I need to go. Can we wrap this up?
33	DKN: Sure, I just have some short questions left. I'm going to read some age categories. Tell me which one yours falls in. Under 25, 25 to 34?
34	That one.
35	DKN: 25 to 34?
36	Yes.
37	DKN: What is your highest educational degree?
38	I have a BA.
39	DKN: Please, could you suggest topics and/or opinions in any area you feel is relevant to the topics presented in this questionnaire.
40	Not really. I need to go.
41	DKN: Alright then. (.) Uh. (.) I appreciate the time you gave me.
42	No problem. (.) Good luck with the rest of your assignment.

Midterm essays

Epistemology is your way of looking at the world; how you understand your knowledge of the world.

Reflexivity is one practice used and documented by researchers that increases the internal validity of the study.

Emic is the term anthropologists use to describe insider or participant perspectives.

Fieldnotes, memos, and keeping a journal are three forms in which a researcher generates data for analysis in a qualitative study.

Three ways to determine trustworthiness are asking, is it 1) acceptable practice, 2) competent practice, 3) ethically conducted?

Some of the strategies for ensuring credibility and rigor are

1. using a critical friend
2. using the community of practice
3. "being there"
4. triangulation
5. participant validation

Member checking is verifying one's data and interpretations with study respondents. It helps to guard against investigator bias and gives the respondents a chance to correct your data if it is inaccurate.

Question: What should I do if I have to conduct interviews with English speakers and my native language is Italian -- should I use a translator?
Answer: If you are fluent in English, you may not need a translator, but you must be able to personally translate cultural meanings from the other language. If not fluent, consult with a translator and discuss with them beforehand what your questions are to make sure they can translate and not loose meaning from the participants. Not having a translator and not being fluent can create a lot of work for yourself or having a translator that mis-quotes meaning can alter the results.

Reflexivity allows researchers to be critical of their own biases. It opens the door to examining ways in which they are part of the setting, context, and social phenomenon since the researcher's mere presence can modify the actions of the participants. Researchers often change their perspective while researching, and reflexivity can out those differences.

Prompt: Discuss questions a school can ask regarding informed consent and describe how you as a qualitative researcher could respond to those questions.
Answer: What is the focus of the research? What are the guiding questions? Why and for whom is the research being done? What role(s) will school personnel be asked to play in this research? What feedback will the school receive, what form will it take, and at what stages of the research process will it be provided? The the conceptual framework should be used to answer some. Some of the content is required for IRB approval and may be able to be carbon copied to the school administrators.

Inductive data analysis is the process of reasoning from specific details to a general body of knowledge to a theory. Deductive data analysis is opposite; it takes a theory and tests it's applicability.

high inference observation: The boy may have gotten his feelings hurt by the group of girls that whispered something in his direction.
low inference observation: The boy is building a castle in the sandbox; girl put a feather on the top of the castle; the boy and girl are friends.

Final essays

Grounded theory is an approach to data analysis that uses theoretical sampling.

Voicing is a characteristic of narrative design.

Local knowledge and situated lives are characteristics of ethnographic design.

By leaving out triangulation, member checks, a peer debriefer, memos, and fieldnotes, your study will be weak in terms of external validity.

Grounded theory is oriented towards action and process whereas interpretivism would have the researcher spend more time with the data, returning to it over and over as assertions develop. Grounded theory is geared to build a theory from interpretations of the data by the researcher's background of literature, personal experience, and interactions with the data. The product is an inductively derived theory from the phenomena it represents. The theory must meet four criteria to be considered valid: fit, understanding, generality, and control. Grounded theory is intended to work on a "best fit" basis rather than exact fits with similar cases. Readers look for credibility of the data, adequacy of the process, and the empirical grounding of the research findings; empirical grounding includes generation of systemically related concepts, range of variation and specificity built into the theory, and considerations of process. There seems to be a general theme of flexibility when working with grounded theory. With interpretivism, instead of drawing conclusions from the data, the data is is used to reinforce assertions. The product of interpretivism is a written report consisting of empirical assertions, analytic narrative vignettes, quotes from field notes, interviews, data reports, interpretive commentary framing, theoretical discussion, and a report of the natural history of inquiry in the study. The grand idea behind the report is to allow the reader to experience the setting, survey the range of evidence, and they allow the reader to consider the personal basis of the author's perspective throughout the study. With regards to validity, Erickson calls for deliberate searches for disconfirming evidence, avoiding the problem of premature typification.

Trustworthiness: Conform to standards of acceptable and competent practice with ethical conduct.

1. Triangulation - multiple data sources ensures a complete study
2. "Being there" - a long time with participants gives a better perspective instead of a snapshot
3. Participant validation - member checks; get more information from the participants after the initial findings
4. Using critical friend - peer debriefer
5. Community of practice - using colleagues to bounce ideas off of

Four factors affect the credibility of a study for cross-group comparisons: selection effects, setting effects, history effects, and construct effects (LeCompte and Goetz). Morse recommends investigator responsiveness, methodological coherence, theoretical sampling and sampling adequacy, and active analytic stance, and saturation as strategies for ensuring rigor. Establishing validity includes determining the extent to which conclusions represent reality and assessing whether constructs represent or measure categories of human experience.

Introduction to statistics notes

- interval/ratio data = normally distributed
- there are three methods to describe data

1. central tendency (mean, median, mode)
2. variability
3. graphics

- three levels of measurement match the three methods of describing data to form a matrix

1. nominal - numbers have no meaning (makes no sense to calculate a mean for gender)
2. ordinal
3. interval/ratio

Statistics method/levels matrix:

	Central tendency	Variability	Graphics
Nominal (categories: male/female)	mode; "the most frequently occurring value was..."	what are the groups? what is the frequency of each category?	bar chart
Ordinal (rank)	median; could also use mode, but not mean	range; "the rankings range from one to 200"	histogram for range of big value pool; bar chart for frequency of small number values
Interval/ratio	mean; could also use mode and median but are not very likely to do so	standard deviation (measure of distance from the mean); variance (standard deviation squared)	histogram (is usually based as core/background of normal distribution curve)

What is correlation?
How one changes with the other. ex: Pearson's correlation coefficient

Descriptive practice using NELS-88 data
standardize the following:

• mother education: ordinal, median, range, frequency table, bar chart
• comprehensive race: mode, frequency table, bar chart
• reading comprehension score: mean, standard deviation, histogram

- In SPSS, click Analyze -> descriptive statistics -> frequencies -> move mother education to the right & move move comprehensive race to the right
- For mother ed and race, keep "Display frequency tables" checked. Select median and mode in the statistics button, and bar chart with frequencies in the charts button.
- For reading score, uncheck the "Display frequency tables" checkbox; in statistics button select mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis; and in charts button select histogram

* with continuous data like test scores, generating a frequency table or bar chart is a waste of time
** with continuous data like test scores, always generate skewness and kurtosis

regression, standard error, t-test, & non-parametric alternatives

Why dependent samples t test could be significant and independent t test not for the same numbers Both use the formula t=mean difference/standard error, but the way standard error is calculated is different because in independent samples, you don't have the relationship of paired data you have in the independent test

sample writeups of SPSS results

• One sample t test: "There is a statistically significant difference (t=5.84, df=9, p<.001) in means between the sample (xbar=110.8, x=11) and the hypothesis (xbar = 90)"
• Independent samples t test: "There is no statistically significant difference (t=-1.74, df=8, p>.05) between control (xbar=105, s=12.3) and experimental (xbar=7.5) groups"
• Mann-Whitney: "There is no difference in ranking (z=-1.57, p>.05) between control (xbar rank=4) and experimental (xbar rank=7) groups"
• Null hypothesis: "There is no mean difference between control and experimental groups"

asymptotic is for huge samples in Mann-Whitney results

r = multiple correlation coefficient

The correlation table and the regression's model summary table say the same confidence value (Pearson post versus r)

regression line formula: y = bX + a

don't forget to change the SPSS axis in graphics to start at zero to more accurately represent the data

Looking at assignment 2-3

1. A2; independent t test b/c it's normally distributed (interval/ratio) and has two independent groups B2; Mann-Whitney b/c not normal distribution (ranking) and has two independent groups
2. A2; Wilcoxon b/c not normal distribution & paired/related groups
3. independent sample t test b/c it is interval/ratio and has two independent groups
4. regression (b/c of "predict") bivariate
5. one sample t test b/c one group against hypothesized mean
6. descriptive; pick type based on whether it is interval/ratio, ordinal, etc. There is no null with descriptives
7. nothing is the key word, but independent t is the best b/c dependent variable is interval/ratio and people either have A or C so they are independent (students can't have A and C as a final grade)
8. Spearman's (or Pearson)
9. probably not a good question; could use Wilcoxon or dependent t test
10. regression was the intended test, but could be a Pearson's; Witta says "influence" is a strong word

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